INDEX

A
Access to the planting site 99, 103, 109, 197–9
Accidents 18, 61, 215–18
Aeration of soil 43–5, 122, see also Soil - compaction, structure
Agriculture, see Farm
Agroforestry - animals 11–15, 70, 133–6, 174, 227–30
- crops 9, 11–15, 14, 67, 69–74, 70, 103, 127, 132, 174, 227–30
Algae 20, 50, 96
Altitude 29, 38, 41–2
Animals - domesticated 12–13, 57–59, 67, 94, 133–6
- wild 57–9, 67, 94, 107–8, 217–18
Ants 31, 44, 58, 81
Appropriate technology 22–3, 149, 227
Artificial regeneration 7–10, 15, see also Growing systems, Plantations
Assumptions 5, 19, 22
Avoiding damage - to soil 1, 13, 46, 66, 78, 81–5, 193–8, 196, 210
- to trees 17, 57–9, 67, 88–90, 135–6, 203–4

B
Bacteria 1, 31, 47, see also Nodules
Bamboo 53–4, 149–50, 153, 157, 232
Biodiversity, see Diversity
Biomass, see Firewood, Raw materials, Timber
Birds 31, 58
Blocks - in experiments 189–92, see also Experimenting with trees
- of trees 8, 23, 33, 109, 186, 189–91
Boundaries, see Lines of trees
Browse, see Forage
Building materials 4, 70, 88, 143, 146, 149–52
Burning, see Fire
Bushmeat, see Animals - wild

C
Canopy opening 38, 53, 90, 98, 171–175, 193, 201
Carbon dioxide 29, 30, 40, 48
Carnivores 30, 59
Carrying capacity 32, 61
Cereals 12, 72, 73
Charcoal 4, 21, 137–9, 231
Chilling injury 37
Choosing tree species to grow 93, 98, 102, 111, 113–66,
Cities 21, 105–8, 160–3
Clearings, large 1, 7–8, 23, 33, 62, 78, 90, 127, 181, 186, 188, 206–8, see also Plantations
Climate, effects of 29, 35–40
Climatic change 40
Colonising trees 52, 74, 85, 90, 96, 98
Communication 17–18, 21, 22, 102
Communities - human 15–16, 22–3, 101–5, 159–63, 165–6
- plant 29–30, 51–6, 101–4, see also Ecosystems
Competition 13–14, 17–18, 31, 35, 53–4, 57, 61, 69–70, 113, 193
Conservation 2, 10, 62, 64, 107–8
Consumers 29–31
Conversion of unthrifty plantations 8, 67, 74, 114, 173, 179
Co-operatives 20, 25, 102
Coppice 13, 14, 55, 78
Crops 9, 11, 12, 20, 72, 94, see also Agroforestry-crops, Cereals, Farm - crops
Cultivation, soil 66–7, 84, 209–11, 210

D
Day-length 38
Deciduous trees 14, 72, 85, 126, 159–60
Decomposers 30, 37, 43, 47, 51, 82, 123
Deforestation 5, 7–10, 20, 32, 61, 75–9, 82–4, 87–90, 96
Degraded sites 67, 74, 75–79, see also Erosion
Demonstration plots 14, 23, 28, 109–12, 192
Dew 36
Diameter of trees 88, 140, 177
Dipterocarps 9, 36, 174
Diseases 27, 31, 47, 53, 57, 110
Disturbances, climatic, etc 38–40, 76
Diversity 65–68, 71, 178, see also Mixtures of species
Domestication of trees 52, 64, 114, 117, 119
Drainage 18, 41–6, 66, 211–14
Drought 36, 41, 44

E
Earthworms 3, 37, 43, 44, 47, 58, 81
Ecosystems 22, 28, 29–33, 40, 71, 95, 223–6
Education 16–17, 21–2, 103, 107–8, 166
Energy 29–30, 33, 40, 48, 51, 137–8, 231–2
Enrichment of stands 9, 67, 89–90, 187–8
Erosion - by water and wind 3, 13, 41–2, 46, 49, 75–7, 81–83, 121, 198, 212, see also Terracing
Evaporation 13
Exotics 93, 113, 119–20, 123–6, 214
Experimenting with trees 14, 22, 25–8, 27, 109–12, 189–92, 219–221, 233

F
Fallow 11, 68–9, 72–73, 78, 87, 127
Farm - animals 4, 20, 70, see also Agroforestry-animals, Animals - domesticated
- crops 11, 14, 20, 32, 63, 70–71, see also Cereals, Crops
- gardens 11, 12, 69, 72, 179, 182, 228
- implements 4, 70, 156
Farmland 1, 69–74, 79, 87, 220
Felling trees 46, 88, 201–4, 216
Fences 10, 13, 78, 103, 150
Fertilisers 11, 13, 17, 50, 72, 73
Field trials, see Experimenting with trees, Trials
Filtering effect 64, 97, 105
Fire - accidental 18, 27, 63, 218
- natural 39, 62, 67, 76, 206
- protection 10, 78, 103, 206, 218
- risk 13, 18, 65, 92, 110
- to clear site 12, 39, 52, 62, 67, 75, 84, 92, 175, 205–208
Fire-breaks 10, 18, 70, 78
Firewood 4, 21, 23, 55, 87, 103, 137–9, 231
Fishing 19–20, 59, 95–6
Flooding 8, 18, 39, 44, 82, 97, 195, 211
Fodder, see Forage
Foods 19–20, 29–30, 94, 127–132, 231
Forage 11–13, 55, 57, 68, 70, 94, 128, 133–6, 231
Forests - closed 35, 220
Frost 36
Fruit 1, 4, 12, 21, 23, 70, 84, 128–9
Fuel 40, 68, 70, 84, 95, 137–40, 139–140, 231–2, see also Energy
Fungi 1, 31, 47, see also Mycorrhizas

G
Gaps in forest 33, 51, 53, 107, 172, 187
Gardens, see Farm gardens
Genetic improvement 5, 15, 52, 55, 87, 89, 111, 119, see also Domestication of trees
Grasses 12, 82, 91–4, 133–6, see also Bamboo, Savanna
Grazing 13, 19, 23, 75, 133–6, 196
Groups, planting in 88, 90, 115, 186–7, 194, 202
Growers of trees 2, 4, 11, 16, 20, 25, 101–4
Growing systems for trees 5, 33, 103, 167–169, 172, 180, 187, 189

H
Herbivores 30, 57, 65, 67, 92, 110
Household implements 4, 21, 143, 153–156
Humans, effects of 19–22, 40, 61–4, 78, 84, 91, 101
Humidity 35, 36

I
Illegal cutting 17, 90, 215, 218
Immature trees 8, 88–9, 173, 178, 202, see also Saplings
Indigenous trees 7–10, 93, 117–19, 169
Insects 31, 44, 57, 58, 81, 106, 127, 195
Interactions - in experiments 27, 190–1
- with environment 5, 29, 35, 44, 68, 108
- with other plants 51–5, 53, 85, 108, 171–5, 193, see also Agroforestry, Mixtures of species
Introduced species 93, 113, 119–20, 123–6, 214

L
Landslides 39, 83
Land tenure 17, 21, 77
Land-use 7, 13–14, 19, 21, 103, 185, 198
Layouts for experiments 25–8, 109–10, 189–92, 221
Leguminous trees 53, 90, 124, 134, see also Nodules, Soil-improving species
Liberation thinning 8, 88–90, 174, 196, 202
Light 35, 38, 171–2, see also Canopy opening, Shade
Light quality 38
Light-demanding species 32, 53, 72, 90, 98, 178
Lines, planting in 9, 33, 70–2, 90, 108, 126, 186–8, 212–4
Litter 3, 47–50, 53, 70, 82
Local species 7–10, 93, 117–9, 169
Logging 20, 46, 87–90, 201–4

M
Mangroves 20, 39, 42, 76, 78, 95–99
Maps 17, 27–8, 89, 110, 190–1, 201, 211, 213, 221
Medicines 4, 54, 71, 84, 87, 131–132, 136
Microclimate 65, 67, 68, 75, 92
Micro-organisms 1, 3, 29, 37, 43, 47–50, 123–5, see also Mycorrhizas, Nodules
Mineral nutrients, see Nutrients
Mixtures of species 53, 73–4, 113–20, 114, 116, 117, 181–4, 182
Monocultures, see Pure stands, Plantations
Mudslides 39, 83
Mulch 4, 11, 13, 26, 46–50, 66, 70, 71–4, 93
Multipurpose trees 4, 13, 71, 73, 103, 157–8, 232–3
Multistorey stands, see Storeys
Mycorrhizas 13, 26, 50, 53, 93, 110, 124–5, 230

N
Natural regeneration 1, 7–10, 33, 35, 97–9, 108, 196, see also Liberation thinning
Natural resources 8, 21, 32, 33, 61–2, see also Sustainable yields
Natural vegetation as indicator for management 10, 32, 54, 67, 78, 98, 223–6
Nitrogen 3, 13, 48–9, 53, 124, 230
Nodules 26, 50, 111, 124, 230
Nurseries for trees 2, 9, 25, 93, 106, 111, 167
Nutrients 3, 13, 43, 45–6, 47–50, 53, 66, 81–5

O
On-farm trials, see Trials - informal
Organic matter 29–33, 43, 46, 47–9, 51, 66, see also Litter
Ornamental species 106–7, 161–163
Overcoming - general problems 2, 5, 14, 15–18, 64, 217, 223–34
- soil degradation 20, 46, 66–7, 74, 75–78, 79

P
Palms 7, 12, 44, 50, 52, 99, 129–32, 156–8, 161, 181–2
Paper 146–7
Parasites 31, 51
Pests 27, 31, 47, 53, 65, 67, 110
pH 43, 45, 50, 67
Photoperiod 38
Plan, see Maps, Overcoming - general problems
Planning 15–17, 21–2, 26, 61, 88–90, 99, 101–3, 113, 117, 141–2, 158, 180, 193–4, 201–4
Plantations 7–8, 14, 19, 53, 90, 114, 121, 181, 196
Planting - patterns 11, 17, 33, 53, 62, 71, 74, 93, 107, 109, 111, 115, 185–188, 212
- sites 65–112, 114, 189–90, 219–21
Poisons 13, 45, 53, 54, 64, 88, 97, 131, 134, 217
Poles 4, 45, 70, 85, 87, 94, 149–50, 152
Pollarding 13, 55, 78
Pollination 1, 31, 58
Pollution 3, 45, 48, 63, 64, 71, 75, 77, 97, 139
Population, humans 5, 9, 19, 29, 61, 77, see also Sustainable yields
Preparing for planting 3, 13, 49–50, 66–7, 78, 93, 167–9, 219–21
Problems, overcoming, see Overcoming - general problems, Soil degradation
Producers 4, 29–33, 51, 183
Propagation 2, 15, 97, 167
Protection 1–3, 13, 27, 32, 39, 57, 81, 82, 193
Pure stands 8–9, 13, 32, 75–8, 98, 114, 121, 180, 181–4, 196

R
Rainfall 3, 29, 35–6, 40, 44, 83, 92
Raw material, wood as 2, 14, 87, 142, 145–8
Reclaiming land, see Restoring sites
Record keeping 17, 28, 63, 89, 178, 201
Recycling of nutrients 3, 13, 33, 47–50, 49, 50, 70, 82, 125
Reducing soil erosion, see Erosion
Regeneration of forests, see Artificial, Natural regeneration
Research, see Experimenting with trees
Restoring sites 4–5, 20, 40, 67, 74, 75–79, 78, 83–5, 89–90, 91–2
Roots 3, 11–13, 37–9, 44, 49, 51, 57, 70, 84, 92–3, 159, 167–8, 172, 193–4, 199
Rotations 55, 74, 84, 90, 99, 103, 142
Run-off 3, 48

S
Safety 215–18, 216
Salt, trees and 38, 42, 67, 78, 95, 97, see also Mangroves
Saplings 7, 8, 88–90, 202–3
Savanna 1, 7, 10, 11, 29, 36, 39, 91–94, 224
Seedlings 1, 7, 88–90, 97–9, 202–3
Seeds 1, 7–9, 15, 31, 87, 108, 127–9
Shade 3–4, 11–12, 38, 46, 53, 70, 84, 93–4, 159–64, 160, 171–6, 193–4, 196
Shade-tolerant species 12, 32, 38, 53, 69, 74, 90, 160, 178
Shelter belts 8, 38, 46, 70, 93, 159–64, 160
Shifting cultivation 11–12, see also Fallow
Shoot growth 37, 38, 54, 57, 93
Silting up 3, 8, 83, 96, 211
Silvicultural systems, see Growing systems for trees
Sites, see Planting - sites
Sketch-maps, see Maps
Slopes 10, 40, 41–2, 51, 65–6, 81–5, see also Erosion, Terracing
Snakes 106, 217
Social forestry, see Communities - human
Soil - compaction 13, 43–4, 46, 48, 75, 203–204, 206, 208
- erosion, see Erosion
- fertility 1, 3–4, 8, 23, 46, 48, 69, 87, 92, 121–6, 127, 194
- structure 3, 43, 45, 62, 65, 81, 121, 194, 196
- types 26, 35, 43–6, 90, 194–6
Soil-improving species 17, 66-8, 73, 78, 90, 93, 103, 121–126
Stemflow 83
Storeys 8–10, 12, 28, 32, 53, 103, 177–180
Storms 18, 38–9, 187, see also Wind
Sugars, see Organic matter
Survival of trees 8, 17, 26, 29–33, 35–40, 97, 167
Sustainable yields 5, 12–13, 19–20, 32, 62, 71, 77–9, 87–88, 89, 96, 99, 140, 141–2, 196, 202, 224–6
Swamps 10, 41, 52, 76, 82, 110, 214, see also Mangroves

T
Teachers 2, 17, 21, 22, 63, 102–4
Terrain 29, 36, 41–45, 65, see also Slopes, Swamps
Terracing 18, 46, 66, 71, 85, 103, 211–214
Temperature 3, 35–7, 40, 42, 53, 70, 168, 172
Termites 44, 81, 195
Throughfall 83, 85
Tilling, see Cultivation, soil
Timber 4, 55, 68, 85, 87, 141–8, 144, 201–4
Topography, see Terrain
Topsoil 1, 3, 13, 47, 49, 75–6, 81–5, 193–4
Traders 4, 17, 19–21, 141
Translation of Manuals 3
Treatments, see Experimenting with trees
Trees - on farms 11–14, 69–74, 70, 72
- protective roles of 1, 3, 13, 69–73, 71, 75–9, 82–4, 87, 103
Trials - field 25–8, 109–12, 169, 183, 189–92, 219–21, 233
- informal 109, 126, 163, 169, 180, 181, 233
Towns 21, 105–8, 160–3

V
Vandals 27, 110, 215, 218
Video 3, 227
Villages 23, 101–5, 161

W
Water 3, 13, 36, 43, 50, 82, 93, 211, see also Rainfall
Weeds 39, 53–5, 92, 94, 97, 113, 120, 126, 171, 173
Wildings 9
Wind 3, 38, 40, see also Erosion, Shelter-belts, Storms
Wood, see Farm, Household implements, Poles, Raw materials, Timber

Tropical Trees: Propagation and Planting Manuals. Volume 4

PREPARING TO PLANT TROPICAL TREES

This Manual is the second to be published in a series of readable, well illustrated handbooks for propagating and planting tropical trees (see inside back cover).

The five Manuals have been designed to provide clear and concise information on how to select, grow, plant and care for tropical trees, in both moist and drier parts of the tropics. They are intended for anyone interested in growing trees, from the small-holder to the large-scale grower, from local communities to national governments and from school and further education teachers to research and extension staff of agricultural and forestry departments. They provide illustrated, step-by-step instructions, practical guidelines and an outline of the thought process lying behind them.

Manual 4 is concerned with the key choices that lie between propagation of good planting stock, and its planting and successful establishment. These usually include:

• good communication between all those with an interest

• some understanding of how tropical ecosystems function

• a consideration of the type of planting site

• choosing which groups of tree species to plant

• deciding on a suitable growing system for the young trees

• preparing the site for planting

The procedures described in this series of Manuals may be used with the majority of woody species to provide diverse seedling or clonal mixtures. They include techniques for ‘domestication’, so that superior planting stock can increasingly be used - this can help to capture more rapidly the great potential for multiple usefulness offered by tropical trees, while also encouraging conservation of their genetic resources.