Chapter objectives
Structure of the chapter
The marketing financial analysis circle
Activities associated with marketing financial analysis functions
Methods involved in marketing financial analysis
What is analysed in marketing financial analysis
Basic financial analysis methods
Other performance measures
Budgeting and forecasting
Key terms
Whilst it is not necessary to be a qualified accountant or bookkeeper, a basic understanding of what is involved in financial analysis is essential for anyone in marketing. It is too enticing, and often too easy, to use "blue skies" thinking in planning marketing activities. It is even easier to spend money without fully realising the return one is getting for it. It is behoven, therefore, on marketers, to be more disciplined and analytical in the way they go about planning, executing and evaluating marketing plans and strategy. One way of introducing more discipline into the process is by having a basic understanding of the financial implications of decision making, and how financial measures can be used to monitor and control marketing operations. The purpose of this text is to provide exactly that, and the first chapter deals basically with an introduction to the activities involved in financial analysis.
This chapter is intended to provide:
· An understanding of financial analysis in marketing
· An explanation of the various activities associated with marketing financial analysis
· A brief introduction to the various financial analysis methods.
The chapter introduces the way in which financial analysis can be used in marketing, and gives a brief overview of the areas in marketing where a knowledge of finance can be very useful, particularly in helping marketers gauge how well strategy is working, in evaluating marketing research alternatives, developing future plans and in marketing control.
Financial analysis can be used to serve many purposes in an organisation but in the area of marketing it has four main functions:
a) to gauge how well marketing strategy is working (situation analysis)
b) to evaluate marketing decision alternatives
c) to develop plans for the future
d) to control activities on a short term or-day to-day basis.
In effect these four functions comprise what can be called the "Marketing Financial Analysis Circle" (see figure 1.1)
Figure 1.1 The marketing-financial analysis circle
For each of the four functional areas where financial analysis is useful in marketing, there are a number of associated activities viz:
a) Financial situation analysis (how well marketing strategy is working)This involves the study of:
· the study of trends
· comparative analysis
· assessment of present financial strengths and limitations for the whole business, brand or component of the business, e.g. transportation.b) Financial evaluation of alternatives
This involves the study of a number of factors like the market place, competitors etc., and is used for decisions whether to:
· introduce new products/delete mature products
· expand the sales force or do more advertising
· delete a market operation e.g. close a Dairy Board depot or increase the sales fleet
· move into a new market or markets
· build a new grain depot or silo.c) Financial planning (projections concerning activities which marketing management has decided to undertake)
Financial planning is used for a number of activities like:
· the introduction of a new range of products
· the forecasting of sales and costs
· market liberalisation.d) Financial control (actual compared to planned results)
This activity is mainly centered around keeping plans on course.
There are a variety of methods used in each of the four functional areas. Some of these include the following:
a) Financial situation analysis· Ratio analysis
· Profit and contribution analysis
· Sales and cost analysis.b) Financial evaluation of alternatives
· Sales and costs analysis
· Break even analysis
· Profit contribution, cash flow analysis, profit projections
· Return on investment
· Return on capital employed
· Sustainable growth rates.c) Financial planning
· Sales and costs forecasts
· Budgets
· Proforma income statements.d) Financial control
· Sales and costs forecasts
· Actual results compared to budgets (analysis of variance)
· Profit performance.
Two factors influence the choice of unit of analysis:
a) the purpose of the analysis
b) the cost of the information needed to perform the analysis.
Several possible units can be used in marketing financial analysis and cost or sales data can be used. These units are listed in table 1.1. which is by no means exhaustive. Units can be chosen which suit the particular situation or organisation.
Table 1.1 - Alternative units in financial analysis
|
Market |
Product/service |
Organisation | ||
|
Total Market |
Industry |
Company | ||
|
Market segment (s) |
Product mix |
Segment/Division/Unit | ||
|
Geographical areas |
Product line |
Marketing department | ||
|
|
- demographics |
Specific product |
Sales unit | |
|
|
- product |
|
- brand |
Regions |
|
|
- characteristics |
|
- model |
District/Branch |
|
|
|
- size |
Office/Store | |
|
|
|
- shape |
Sales person | |
These will be expanded on in later chapters, so this section serves as an introduction only.
Use of ratios
Ratios can be used to judge the organisation's "liquidity", i.e. can it pay its bills, its "leverage", i.e. how is it financed and its "activities", i.e. the productivity and efficiency of the organisation. Taking liquidity analysis only, this has a bearing on new product planning, marketing budgets and the marketing decisions. Liquidity analysis is drawn from the balance sheet, e.g.:
|
|
$ |
|
$ |
|
Cash |
250 |
Current |
120 |
|
Accounts receivable |
300 |
Short term debt |
100 |
|
Stock |
200 |
Long term debt |
1,500 |
|
Total current assets |
750 |
Total liabilities |
1,720 |
|
Property and equipment |
2,000 |
Net worth |
1,430 |
|
Other assets |
400 |
|
|
|
Total assets |
3,150 |
Total liabilities and net worth |
3,150 |
Current and quick ratios
These are used to judge a firm's short term capacity to meet its financial responsibilities.
(i) Current ratio(should be greater than 1)
750/220=3.41
ii) Quick ratio
(minus stock)
550/220=2.50
Debt ratios
These are used to measure long term liquidity
(Current Liability + Short Term Debt + Long Term debt) should be >1
1,720/1,430=1.21
(Long Term Debt + Net Worth)
1,500/2,930=0.51
This ratio shows the extent of leverage (debt) in total capitalisation.
Profit analysis
Breakeven analysis is a method used to estimate the number of units (volume) or sales value required to make neither profit or losses. In other words, it is the point where costs of production and sales volume are equal.
Sales and cost information are used to calculate the breakeven point. Without getting into the argument as to what constitutes fixed or variable costs, fixed costs are defined as those which do not vary with output e.g. rent, rates, whereas variable costs do vary with increased or decreased output, e.g. labour, materials. Breakeven assumes fixed costs are constant, variable costs vary at a constant rate and there is only one selling price. However, with a higher or lower price, the breakeven point will be lower or higher respectively. Breakeven is calculated by the formula:
By rearranging the formula breakeven costs or sales can be calculated. Note that profit level intentions should be added to the fixed costs as this is a "charge" to the company. Also, if one wishes to recover all new investment (value) immediately it should be added to fixed cost.
Breakeven can be calculated by the formula or by graphical methods. Figure 1.2 shows an example of both.
Figure 1.2 Formula and graphical solution for breakeven analysis
i) Formula
|
Price/Unit = |
$ 1.846 |
|
Variable cost/Unit = |
$ 0.767 |
|
Fixed costs = |
$70.000 |
= 65, 000 units (volume)
or $120, 000
Figure 1.2 Graphical solution
Contribution analysis: When performance of products, market segments and other marketing units is being analysed, an examination of the profit contribution generated by a unit is often very useful to management.
CONTRIBUTION = SALES (REVENUE) - VARIABLE COSTS
So, contribution represents the amount of money available to cover fixed costs and the excess available is net income.
For example, suppose a product is generating a positive contribution margin. If the product is dropped, the remaining products would have to cover fixed costs that are not directly traceable to it.
In the example below if X was eliminated, $50, 000 of product net income would be lost. If the product was retained the $50, 000 could be used to contribute to other fixed costs and/or net income (see figure 1.3.).
Gross and net profit margins: Contribution margin is useful for examining the financial performance of products, market segments and other marketing, planning and control units. However, marketing executives should be familiar with the calculation of gross and net profit margins, which is useful to gauge company and business unit financial performance and to budget for future operations. The profit and loss statement is useful for reporting performance to stockholders and to compute taxes. Figure 1.4 gives an example
Figure 1.3 Illustrative contribution margin for product X (000's)
|
|
|
$ |
|
SALES |
|
500 |
|
LESS: |
Variable manufacturing costs |
200 |
|
Other variable costs traceable to product X |
100 |
|
|
EQUALS: |
Contribution margin |
200 |
|
LESS: |
Fixed cost traceable to product X |
150 |
|
EQUALS: |
Product's net income |
50 |
Note: Chapter 5 provides further explanations of a) and b).
Figure 1.4 Illustrative profit and loss statement
|
|
|
$ |
|
SALES REVENUE |
|
1,200,000 |
|
LESS |
Cost of goods sold |
800,000 |
|
EQUALS: |
Gross profit margin |
400,000 |
|
LESS: |
Selling and admin. expenses |
200,000 |
|
EQUALS: |
Net profit before tax |
200,000 |
|
LESS: |
Tax |
80,000 |
|
EQUALS: |
Net profit |
120,000 |
Consider the following sample data taken from Rowe, Mason, Dickel and Westcott (1987)
|
|
$ |
|
Cost of goods sold |
12,000 |
|
Operating expenses |
3,600 |
|
Sales |
16,500 |
|
Stocks |
3,200 |
|
Accounts receivable |
3,750 |
|
Cash |
400 |
|
Prepaid expenses |
50 |
|
Fixed assets |
1,200 |
Financial analysis models
Many models, often computerised, have been developed to aid marketers see the effects on the "bottom line" of a change in an organisation. One such programme is the Dupont Analysis The model allows executives to input data into blank boxes and by manipulating any figure find the resulting outcome. One of the advantages of computer based models is that one can work "backward" or "forward" through the model, setting desired levels of cost or outcomes and calculating the results.
Figure 1.5 Sample printout of the Dupont analysis
Various other performance measures can be used; these include productivity measures, which, say, for a supermarket would be:
Other measures include inventory turnover:
These two activities are essential to marketing planning and are often done via pro forma statements.
a) Marketing budgetsField sales expense, advertising expense, product development expense, market research expense, distribution expense (trade and administration), promotion expense (trade, consumer).
b) Pro forma financial statement
Annual profit and loss statement, next year pro forma/quarter, current year budget/quarter, last year actual/quarter, annual revision of 5 year pro forma profit and loss statement (expense detail for broad categories).
N.B. In all figures watch for inflation and information gaps (use approximation).
Spreadsheets
Spreadsheets are often used in budgeting and forecasting exercises. Spreadsheets use the memory of a computer as if it were a large piece of paper divided up into a matrix of cells. Into these cells may be entered numbers, text and formulae. The power of these systems is that the data held in any one cell can be made dependent on that held in other cells and changing a value in one cell can set (if wanted) a chain reaction of changes through other related cells. This means that a model can be built in which the effect of changing key parameters may be observed. A term often used to describe spreadsheets is "what if software". It can be used, for example, to evaluate the effect of changing the sales commission rate. Simply entering a new value in the commission rate cell will lead to the automatic re-calculation of all dependent cells. Figure 1.6 shows an example of a spreadsheet used in accounting.
Figure 1.6 A sample spreadsheet
|
|
A |
B |
C |
D |
E |
F |
|
1 |
Quarterly sales figures | |||||
|
2 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
3 |
Salesman |
1st Qtr |
2nd Qtr |
3rd Qtr |
4th Qtr |
Total |
|
4 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
5 |
Alan Adams |
5600.00 |
8750.00 |
10500.00 |
8500.00 |
33350.00 |
|
6 |
Brian Brown |
5250.00 |
7500.00 |
9500.00 |
8625.00 |
30875.00 |
|
7 |
Chris Cooke |
5625.00 |
8250.00 |
8200.00 |
9500.00 |
31575.00 |
|
8 |
Don Davis |
4585.00 |
6500.00 |
6500.00 |
7200.00 |
25810.00 |
|
9 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
10 |
Total |
21060.00 |
|
|
|
|
|
11 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
12 |
Commission |
1.5% |
|
|
|
|
|
13 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
14 |
Salesman |
1st Qtr |
2nd Qtr |
3rd Qtr |
4th Qtr |
Total |
|
15 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
16 |
Alan Adams |
84.00 |
131.25 |
157.50 |
127.50 |
5000.25 |
|
17 |
Brian Brown |
78.75 |
112.50 |
142.50 |
129.38 |
463.13 |
|
18 |
Chris Cooke |
84.38 |
123.75 |
123.00 |
142.50 |
473.63 |
|
19 |
Don Davis |
68.78 |
97.50 |
112.88 |
108.00 |
387.15 |
Note: The formatting of the 'cells' to display numerical fields to two decimal places/values for commission in the lower half are found by multiplying the sales figures by 1.5%; totals are stored as the SUM (column or row); the borders showing column letters and row numbers may be omitted.
Spreadsheets are powerful personal decision support tools. In addition, programming facilities such as IF...THEN...ELSE greatly extend the control that may be built into the model.
Budgeting and forecasting
Contribution analysis
Dupont analysis model
Financial control
Financial evaluation of alternatives
Financial planning
Financial situation analysis
Gross and net profit margins
Marketing financial analysis circle
Profit analysis
Ratio analysis
Spreadsheets
