The formative years (1948-1962)
The action-oriented body period (1962-1980)
The ‘EEZ Programme’ period (1980-1990)
The ‘sustainable development’ period (1990 to present)
Regional cooperation for sustainable fisheries development
Summary of activities and achievements of APFIC
During its half century of existence, APFIC has witnessed a remarkable evolution of the fisheries in the Asia-Pacific region. When it was established in 1948, the seas abounded with fishes, with many stocks under-exploited. Inland capture fisheries was a major source of protein for local populations in many countries and aquaculture practices were rudimentary. The total number of fishers, predominantly small-scale, in the whole region in the early fifties were crudely estimated at about four million as compared to 28 million in 1995. Fishing boats employed were mainly of small sizes and non-mechanized and the gear was traditional, mainly of a stationary type.
During the past fifty years, the number of mechanized fishing boats has increased significantly and the gear employed has become more efficient. The majority of the fishers, however, are still small-scale. Fish production rose from 7 million tons in 19505 to 66.5 million tons in 1996. The rapid development of fisheries, beginning in the sixties in response to the increased demand for fish from both local and foreign markets, has resulted in the full utilization of many fish stocks and the depletion of others in many fishing grounds, especially those in inshore and coastal waters. The accelerated development of aquaculture to augment fish production was initiated in the seventies, and the need to conserve and manage fishery resources has received special attention by the world community since the eighties, when the new regime of the oceans was adopted. The principle of exclusive economic zones enshrined in the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea has since provided opportunities for coastal States to use and manage their resources with, hopefully, the least implications on the environment. Subsequent to this important cornerstone of the new regime of the oceans, there have been a number of global fisheries-related instruments and initiatives adopted and aimed at sustaining the optimal use of the available fishery resources, including straddling and highly migratory fish stocks. The key words for the present decade are thus ‘prevention of environmental degradation’, ‘management’ and ‘sustainable development’.
Following the above evolutionary trend of the fisheries of the region, the activities and achievements of the Commission can be arbitrarily divided into the following periods:
1. The formative years (1948-1962);
2. The period when APFIC endeavoured to increase its action-oriented role (1962-1980);
3. The EEZ Programme period (1980-1990); and
4. The sustainable development period (1990 to present)
When APFIC was formed in 1948, the prime objective envisaged by the founding members was to increase food production through accelerated fisheries development. The message of Dr. B.R. Sen, Director-General of FAO, at the opening of the Ninth Session of the Commission in 1961 read “...It is, of course, of the greatest importance to me and to the Food and Agriculture Organization that conferences of this nature should be held, with the basic objective of providing increased supplies of essential foods to the peoples not only of this Region but of the World and it is such Councils as this which can and do make valuable contributions to the Freedom From Hunger Campaign.”
During this early period of the Commission, with the exception of a few countries, fisheries did not play a significant role in the economies of the region, although fish constituted the staple diet of the majority. One of the major factors impeding the development was the lack of trained personnel at various levels of the industry. Hence, during these formative years, APFIC had to concern itself with the development of baseline studies and fact finding in order to appraise the status of the fishing industries and identify the problems and the needs of the Member Governments in the course of developing their fisheries. Information was obtained from the member countries, reports on the fishing industries of the region and also from technical papers presented at the sessions. With this information, the Commission formulated its views and recommendations for consideration and appropriate action by the Member Governments and FAO.
Through its two Technical Committees, the Commission had the opportunity to consider a wide range of fisheries issues, including fishery resources, aquaculture, planktology, algology, hydrology, taxonomy, fishing craft and gear, food processing, socio-economic subjects and fishery statistics. It should be noted that during these early years of the Commission, the issues concerning fisheries development were considered on a sectorial basis, as compared to the holistic approach adopted in recent years by the Commission.
The ensuing paragraphs highlight the major activities and achievements of the Commission during the formative years. Those activities that are of a continuous nature are also presented in this section.
Dissemination of fisheries information
One of the major tasks of the Commission during the early period was to compile and publish information on the status of fishery research and development in the region. This initiative can be considered one of the major accomplishments of the Commission because it led to the identification of the problems encountered and the needs of the member countries in the course of developing their fisheries industries from the fifties to the early sixties. The APFIC publications during the formative years comprised:
Valuable technical information on various aspects of fisheries research and development was presented, usually in Sections II and III, of the session’s Proceedings, Special Publications, Regional Studies and Occasional Papers. During its first five sessions, the Commission compiled fisheries bibliographies which included Sector Bibliographies, Current and Subject Bibliographies of fisheries specialists, projects and institutions, and a register of fishing crafts in the region. The preparation of these bibliographies was later transferred to the FAO Fisheries Department in Rome, Italy.
The Commission also published the Current Affairs Bulletin, which was essentially a newsletter used to facilitate the exchange of ideas and knowledge or progress of work in certain aspects of fisheries research and development amongst its Members. For instance, at the Third APFIC Session (1951), the Members were urged to use the Current Affairs Bulletins to inform each other of the observations or studies they had done on the effects of long term climate change on fishery resources. Members of the Commission during that time spoke highly of the usefulness of this publication. The issuance of the Current Affairs Bulletin was terminated after 1964 due to budgetary limitations. Attempts were made in subsequent sessions of the Commission to reactivate this newsletter, but the idea was given up because of the high cost of publication and distribution, and the fact that a number of new regional fisheries bodies and programmes were publishing individual newsletters6.
APFIC has always paid particular attention to the improvement of the capabilities of personnel in academic and governmental institutions as well as the fishery industry, and in the formative years, it put great emphasis on technical instruction. The Commission at its Second Session in 1950 considered the needs of the member countries in the area of training and recommended action leading to the preparation of a series of Fishery Officers’ handbooks. The Third Session (1951) proposed the issuance of a series of handbooks and a general editor was selected. The first handbook on the culture of warm water fish was published in 1962. However, this programme of activity was subsequently transferred to FAO, which published a number of valuable fishery reference manuals, including the famous ‘Manual on Methods in Fishery Biology’; ‘Manual of Methods for Fisheries Resources Survey and Appraisal’; ‘Manual of Methods for Fish Stock Assessments’; and ‘Manual of Sampling and Statistical Methods for Fisheries Biology’.
During the formative period, the publications produced by APFIC were distributed to more than 500 institutions throughout the world, and the Commission’s high standing in the fields of fishery research and development has generally been recognized.
In recent years, the publications issued regularly by the Commission comprise mainly Proceedings of the Commission sessions, including reports of symposia organized in conjunction with the sessions. Some technical information has been published occasionally by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific on behalf of APFIC.
Improvement of fishery statistics
The improvement of fishery statistics has been accorded high priority by the Commission since its First Session in 1949. The attention of Member Governments was drawn by the Commission at the First Session to ‘the importance to their fishery departments of the availability of authentic, accurate information on the factors of production and distribution and on the volume and composition of the catch as landed and in its marketed form’. The Commission believed that such information was indispensable for any programme of administration and development. The priority accorded to fishery statistics was repeated at the Third APFIC Session in 1951. A statistics working group was set up at that session of APFIC to assist its Members in the development of their fishery statistical programmes and in the planning of a training programme. A sub-committee was subsequently established under Technical Committee II to carry on the statistical work; however, progress was rather slow during 1949-1962.
Following the recommendations arising out of the earlier sessions of APFIC, two training sessions on fishery statistics were conducted in Bangkok, Thailand, in 1952 and in Mumbai, India in 1959. In the seventies and early eighties, several training courses were conducted by the FAO/UNDP South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme (SCSP); during the late eighties and nineties, FAO collaborated with SEAFDEC in organizing regional workshops on fisheries information and statistics. These have resulted in the refinement of the statistical programmes of the South China Sea countries as well as in the improvement of the statistical presentations in the bulletins at the regional and international levels, such as those published by SEAFDEC and FAO.
The Sixth Session of APFIC (1957) recommended to its Members that the first Fisheries Year for the region should be observed at the same time as the International Geophysical Year scheduled for 1957/58 during which a large amount of data on oceanography and meteorology would be collected. The Commission at its Seventh Session urged its Members to carry out at least a minimum programme for statistical data collection, including the total fish production of the country; total fishing population; and fishing craft and gear employed.
During the formative years, APFIC made several recommendations, including the necessity of improving the catch and effort data for fishery resources appraisal to both the Member Governments and FAO for consideration and action. One of these recommendations resulted in the establishment of the post of Regional Fisheries Statistician (see Technical Assistance Activities below). The latter, during his tenure, gave valuable advice to the countries in the region in the development and improvement of fisheries statistics, with particular reference to the marine fisheries sub-sector.
Technical assistance activities
Since the Commission commenced its activities in 1948, high priority has been given to technical assistance to developing countries to facilitate their fisheries development with a view to increasing food production, especially from unexploited fishery resources. APFIC at its Third Session (1951), considering the problems of technical assistance for the economic development of the fishing industries of the Asia-Pacific region, agreed that the provision of technical training was of paramount importance and decided to adopt a plan for the development of technical training to be supported by the technical assistance programme. The Sixth Session of APFIC (1955) reiterated the importance of technical assistance programmes for the acceleration of fisheries development in the region.
In response to the Commission’s recommendations at various sessions during 1949-1972, three consultant posts were established at the regional level. The post of regional fisheries statistician was created in 1965 under the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance (EPTA) financed by UNDP to assist in the development of fishery statistics. The post was terminated in 1973. Another EPTA funded post, Regional Fish Culturist, was established in 1965 and terminated in 1974. Furthermore, the post of regional consultant in fish processing was filled by the Assistant Secretary of APFIC, funded under the FAO Regular Programme from 1962 until it was terminated in 1969. Since 1978, FAO has supported under its Regular Programme budget the post of Regional Aquaculture Officer to its Regional Office in Bangkok in response to the needs of the countries of the region.
Fishery training
The Commission in the early period also gave high priority to training, recognizing the lack of trained fishery personnel in many countries. It was instrumental in the organization in the early years of training centers and seminars, with cooperation provided by FAO, UNDP and, recently, by other government cooperative agencies such as DANIDA, NORAD, CIDA, and SIDA. The training courses and seminars organized by FAO in response to APFIC recommendations covered a wide range of topics including fish culture, fishery statistics, fish marketing, fishery cooperatives and administration, fish processing, boat building, etc. (Appendix 10).
Although many of the above training courses and seminars were organized in the region, a number of training courses and seminars recommended by APFIC were organized by FAO, in collaboration with host governments and agencies outside the region, and were attended by fishery personnel from the APFIC region.
In 1962, APFIC at its Tenth Session discussed manpower resource requirements in the region for the fisheries sector and agreed that there was still a shortage of personnel for fishery administration, research, extension service, operatives/boat mechanics and masterfishermen. Urgent attention was given to shipwrights and boatbuilders; masterfishermen and engineers/mechanics. The Sixth FAO Regional Conference also recommended that FAO arrange a regional training center for instructors in boat building and in the training of masterfishermen, marine engineers and mechanics. These recommendations may have influenced the establishment of sub-regional training centers such as the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) and the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia (NACA) in the later years.
Symposia
One of the outstanding activities of APFIC is the organization of a symposium in conjunction with each of its regular sessions. The symposium topics have covered a wide range of subjects related to fisheries research, development and management (see Appendix 9). As generally recognized by the APFIC Members, the results of the symposia have yielded benefits to the member countries in the revision and fine tuning of their fisheries research and development policies and strategies as well as in identifying gaps in the existing knowledge on particular topics.
Technical topics under consideration by the Commission’s two Technical Committees and the panels thereunder in the early years were wide ranging, covering fishery resources inventory; oceanography; fish culture; craft and gear; development of fish harbour and landing facilities; fish processing; fishery statistics and economics.
Fishery resources inventory and appraisal
Tuna resources have received priority attention by the Commission from the beginning. Because the distribution of many stocks of tuna, especially those in the Western Central Pacific, was not well known then, the Commission recommended an analysis of the racial populations of those stocks of tuna, with special reference to morphometric analysis. The Members that were active in tuna studies were Australia, Japan and USA. Some data were, however, provided for the studies by Indonesia, India and Sri Lanka, mainly on surface schooling tunas in the South China Sea and its contiguous waters and the Indian Ocean.
During the early period of the Commission, coastal pelagic fishery resources also received attention, viz., short mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma), Indian mackerel (Rastrelliger kanagurta), sardines (Sardinella spp.), clupeoid fishes, and anchovies. Due to the keen interest of several member countries, mackerels were included in the study programme of the IPFC. The two training seminars organized by FAO under the FAO/EPTA programme in 1958 and 1964, at the recommendation of the Commission, definitely strengthened the capability of fishery researchers and gave impetus to fishery resource appraisal activities in the region, especially in India, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand. Considerable progress was made on the studies of the life history and population dynamics of the short mackerel (Rastrelliger brachysoma) by the seventies.
The persistent activities of the Commission in those early years also shed light on the biology and bionomics of other resources, including crustaceans, molluscs and seaweeds. Since 1962, increased attention has been given to stock assessment and proper management of fishery resources, particularly those in Southeast Asian waters.
Environmental studies
Interest in oceanographic studies in those formative years was encouraged by the developed Members of the Commission. However, not many members of developing countries could participate actively in the programme on hydrology (oceanography) as recommended by the Commission because of the lack of trained scientists and oceanographers as well as oceanographic research vessels. However, these early recommendations might have aroused interest in the study of oceanography as revealed by the cooperative oceanographic expedition in the South China Sea (NAGA Expedition) conducted during 1958-61 by Thailand, Vietnam and USA and the subsequent IOC/CSK Programme on the Cooperative Study of the Kuroshio and Adjacent Regions which was joined by several APFIC member countries during 1962-1971.
Primary productivity studies through the assessment of the abundance of plankton, including fish eggs and larvae, were also encouraged by the Commission. To promote interest in plankton study, a symposium on plankton was organized in collaboration with Unesco, in conjunction with the Commission’s Fifth Session in 1954. The outcome of the symposium led to the standardization of plankton collection. With the Commission’s initiative, standardization experiments on the Marutoku B-Type zooplankton net were carried out in member countries during 1958-61 with Unesco’s funds. The results of the experiments were reported to the Ninth Session of the Commission in 1961.
Aquaculture development
The vital contribution of aquaculture to food security in the region has been recognized by APFIC since its inception, and aquaculture development has been on the agenda of the Commission, although in the formative years, priority attention was given to freshwater fish culture. Member countries benefited from the advice and recommendations arising from the Council’s sessions and from the technical publications produced, especially in the application of scientific methods in the improvement of traditional fish culture; e.g. in the collection and transportation of fish fry, the raising of fry and marketable sized fish, fish nutrition and the prevention and control of fish diseases.
In the early years, APFIC was responsible for the introduction of the technique of using the pituitary hormone to induce breeding of several cultivable freshwater species. To promote fish culture in rice fields, the Commission recommended close cooperation among the agencies concerned with rice production and fish propagation. Induced breeding techniques are widely used in many countries in the region in the artificial propagation of many cultivable species.
To enhance fish culture development in the early period, a Sub-Committee on Fish Culture was established by APFIC under its Technical Committee I. Three seminars/training courses were organized by FAO during 1949-1955 in response to the Commission’s request. In addition, a symposium on fish culture in rice fields was held in conjunction with the Seventh Session of the Commission (1957).
Three groups of cultured species were under consideration of the Commission during the formative years, viz., Hilsa spp., milkfish (Chanos chanos) and mullets (Mugil spp.). Much progress was made on the study of Hilsa spp. carried out mainly by India and Pakistan; however, slow progress was made on the studies of the culture of milkfish and mullets during that period.
These proactive programmes of the Commission created impetus for the rapid development of aquaculture in subsequent decades in its member countries, particularly in India, Philippines, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam.
Inland fisheries development
APFIC gave priority attention to the development of inland capture fisheries in the early period because of the important contribution of this sub-sector to food supply in the rural areas of many countries of the region. The Commission discussed and provided its views and recommendations on several issues of relevance to inland fisheries development, including aquatic weed control, the introduction of non-indigenous species and pollution. Member countries were advised to undertake the assessment of the basic productivity of the waters with a view to enhancing fish production as well as the monitoring of the effects of introduction of exotic species on local species. A symposium on fish transplantation was held with the Third Session of the Commission in 1951.
Mechanization of fishing craft and improvement of fishing gear
APFIC has long recognized the importance of the development of fishing craft and gear for the efficient exploitation of fishery resources. Its earlier activities covered a survey of local fishing vessels and traditional types of fishing gear employed by the multitude of artisanal fishermen. A catalogue of traditional fishing gear and methods was prepared by the Commission. It undertook studies of other aspects of craft and gear development such as the preservation of fishing gear, and the introduction of non-indigenous gear such as trawl and gill nets made with synthetic fiber. A symposium on the development of a mechanized fishing fleet in the APFIC region was organized in conjunction with the Tenth Session of APFIC in 1962.
The Commission’s attention to the above issues has given rise to the rapid mechanization of fishing craft and the development of fishing gear in the region, resulting in a remarkable increase in regional fish production.
Development of landing and harbour facilities
The need for improving and expanding fish landing and harbour facilities of the developing member countries was discussed as early as the Third Session (1951) of APFIC. In the early period, the Commission, on several occasions, gave advice to its Member Governments on how to proceed with such improvements. The Commission’s recommendations in this respect may have stimulated several Member Governments to effect these improvements, many with support of multilateral and bilateral agencies as well as international and regional financing institutions, as revealed in the country statements and pertinent reports regularly submitted to the regular sessions of the Commission.
Fish handling and processing
The formative years witnessed the Commission’s efforts to improve fish handling and the processing of traditional fish and fishery products. A preliminary assessment by the Commission revealed that several of the traditional products were unattractive to consumers and involved considerable wastage during production. As a result, they fetched low prices and had a limited market. A programme of activity for the development of fish handling and processing was thus formulated as early as the First Session of the Commission in 1949, involving (i) a survey of fish processing industries in the region including by-products therefrom; (ii) gradual establishment of experimental and demonstration centers; and (iii) gradual adoption of more sanitary measures.
To facilitate the improvement of fish handling and processing in its member countries, the Commission, at its Fifth Session in 1954 recommended the preparation of two publications, one on the principles of fish handling and processing and the other on the best methods of fish handling and processing suitable for the region. It requested its members to supply information on fisheries products of the region to FAO. Based on this information, FAO prepared a handbook on ‘Fish Products of the Indo-Pacific Region’. Other publications pertinent to the subject of fish processing technology development were published from time to time in the IPFC Regional Studies series.
Since the Seventh Session of the Commission (1957) additional aspects of fish handing and processing have been considered, e.g., icing, fermenting, canning and the development of by-products and fish meals. In response to the Commission’s recommendations, FAO organized two training courses on fish processing technology in the Philippines in 1961 and in India in 1966. The training courses and pertinent recommendations of the Commission have resulted in the development of research programmes on fish handling and processing in several countries of the region, as evident from the country statements and technical reports submitted to the regular sessions of the Commission.
Socio-economic development
The Commission has had concern for the plight of small-scale fishermen and their families since its beginning and at its Fourth Session in 1953, it organized a symposium to appraise the socio-economic conditions in the member countries. To help improve the status of the fishermen in several countries, the Commission advised its Member Governments to consider forming fishermen’s groups, including cooperatives, with credit provided to the groups. Subsidies for fuel oils, the relaxation of certain rules and regulations, e.g. the safety regulations of vessels at sea as well as the provision of insurance for fishermen were encouraged. In 1964, when considering the host government issues, the Commission also had an extensive discussion on the status of fishermen’s groups and cooperatives in various countries and provided recommendations on how to develop large scale cooperatives for the benefit of small-scale fishermen. It is believed that several Member Governments of the Commission have adopted this cooperative concept as policy.
On the fish marketing aspect, the Commission organized a symposium on fish marketing at its Fifth Session in 1954. In the same year, a successful training course in fish marketing was organized by FAO in collaboration with the United Kingdom at the recommendation of the Commission. This symposium and the training programme had a wide response from Member Governments and stimulated increased interest in the socio-economic issues of the fisheries development in the region.
Human resource development is another socio-economic issue which has received priority attention by the Commission from the beginning. To accelerate the development of marine fisheries for further production increase, the Commission encouraged the governments to establish national fishermen’s training centers in navigation and engineering. This recommendation had a wide response from the Member Governments as can be seen from the number of fishermen’s training centers set up during the sixties in several member countries with assistance from FAO and UNDP. The Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC) established in 1967 was originally planned as a national training programme for Thailand with possible support from the Government of Japan. However, because of the interest shown by a number of countries in the Southeast Asian region, this center was redesigned as a sub-regional center, financed by Japan and host governments, and with other disciplines included, e.g., marine fisheries research, fish processing and aquaculture development.
As indicated earlier, APFIC, in the formative years, focused its efforts primarily on developing a better understanding of the status of the region’s fishery resources and fishing industries and on introducing science and technology into the rational development of the fisheries of the member countries. During this period, the Commission paid increased attention to practical measures associated with the rapid changes in the fisheries industries as well as to resources research and policy and planning for the rational exploitation of the fisheries. As early as 1955 (the Sixth Session of APFIC), the Commission believed that it should become more action-oriented by at least promoting cooperative research programmes in order to better serve its member countries in tackling issues arising from the rapid changes in the fisheries sector.
This period can be considered as the golden era of the Commission when fisheries development received wider attention by the world community, multilateral agencies, financing institutions and donor countries. More funds were available for fisheries programmes at both regional and national levels and for support of the Commission’s programmes of activity.
At the Twelfth Session of APFIC in 1966, the Representative of the Director-General of FAO in his address to the Commission stated, “the Council, the oldest of the International Fisheries Bodies established within the framework of FAO, sees before itself new or newly urgent problems and to meet them it may have to try new ways. The era during which the Council has been merely a forum for the exchange of views and information and a source of proposals for execution by individual Member Governments may be coming to a close. More and more there will be demands for concerted international action in fisheries. This may require a greater concentration of the Council’s attention on such matters. Such demands are finding expression in the new FAO Committee on Fisheries which has started upon its work with effectiveness and vigor”.
The period 1962-1980 coincided with a number of important events in the evolution of fisheries at both the regional and international levels. Some of these events may have contributed to the Commission’s subsequent strategy of adjusting its activities, thus enabling it to respond effectively to the rapid changes in world fisheries.
These events included the unanimous recognition by the Governing Bodies of FAO of the contribution of fisheries to world food supply and economy, and resulted in the upgrading of the FAO Fisheries Division to Departmental status in 1967. Furthermore, United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2172 on Resources of the Sea, adopted by the 21st Session of the UN General Assembly (1966), provided for an Expanded Programme of International Cooperation (EPIC) to assist Member States in the better understanding of the marine environment through science, and in the exploitation and development of marine resources with due regard to the conservation of fish stocks. This Resolution led to the strengthening of activities of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) and increased cooperation amongst the UN agencies concerned with the study of the sea, its resources and environment.
Immediately prior to this period, a number of ocean expeditions with the support and cooperation of governments both in and outside the region also took place. Notable amongst these were the NAGA Expedition in the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea carried out by Thailand, Vietnam and USA and the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE), in which several members of APFIC participated. During this period, under the aegis of IOC, there was a Cooperative Study of the Kuroshio Current with fisheries as an important element and with the cooperation of FAO. Several members of APFIC participated in this study. These ocean expeditions may have influenced the Commission’s strategy to give more attention to international projects and issues in later years.
The 1962-80 period also witnessed widespread support for international and regional fisheries development and management programmes from multilateral financing institutions and interested donor countries. The implementation of two important inter-regional and regional programmes took place during the period, viz., the International Indian Ocean Fishery Survey and Development Programme (IOP, 1970-1978) and the South China Sea Fishery Development and Coordinating Programme (SCSP, 1973-1984).
To be an action-oriented body, APFIC adopted a new pattern of work. With technical, administrative and financial support from FAO, APFIC was able to set up a number of technical working parties on priority topics decided upon by the Commission at each session. Many of these working parties were attended by experts appointed by the Director-General who served the working parties in their individual capacity, and their participation was financed by FAO. This new pattern of work of the Commission proved to be fruitful, yielding positive results to the member countries.
This period also saw the birth of several regional and sub-regional fishery or fishery-related bodies in the region; notable amongst them were the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC); the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN); and the International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM). With the existence of these regional and subregional bodies, the effectiveness of APFIC became somewhat diluted in later years.
The following sections summarize selected key activities and achievements of the Commission during 1962-1980 when it took steps to become an action-oriented body so that it could effectively meet the demands for concerted international and regional action in fisheries management and development.
The South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme (SCSP)
A proposal of the Governments of Thailand and Vietnam to conduct a cooperative research project in the South China Sea and the Sunda Shelf with particular emphasis on resource surveys that might lead to the economic exploitation of the fishery resources in these waters was first discussed at the Eleventh Session of the Commission (1964). The Government of Malaysia also wished to participate in the project. The Commission, in expressing support for the proposal, resolved that: (i) the proposal should be brought to the attention of other governments of the countries bordering the South China Sea; (2) FAO and Unesco should give all possible assistance to the project; and (3) the Commission’s Working Party on Trawling should assist in the planning for the project.
The need for a coordinating mechanism to ensure the most efficient use of the limited national and international funding for fisheries development in the South China Sea region was generally recognized by the Commission. Hence, the South China Sea proposal was further discussed by the Commission at its Thirteenth Session (1968), in the context of a “South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme”. The Commission believed that it could provide such a mechanism for coordinating and implementing existing national and regional fisheries programmes in the South China Sea, provided that adequate support could be made available through the UNDP or other sources of international assistance.
Progress in the preparation of the project was discussed at the Fourteenth Session of APFIC (1970). The Commission, at that session, was informed that it had not yet been possible for FAO to prepare the programme for submission to UNDP as priority had been given by the latter to the Indian Ocean Fishery Survey and Development Programme (IOP). However, the then IOP Programme Leader (John C. Marr) who attended the session promised to take initiative in coordinating and consulting with FAO. In Rome, he asked the author who was then Fishery Liaison Officer responsible for the IPFC to undertake the preparation of a proposal for this project for submission to UNDP. The draft project proposal was subsequently prepared and the UNDP Intercountry Programming Mission which visited the FAO Headquarters had the opportunity to review it. As the proposal received favourable comments by the Mission, a more detailed project document for the South China Sea Fishery Development and Coordinating Programme (Phase I) was therefore prepared by FAO and submitted for UNDP approval in late 1972.
The long-term objectives of SCSP were to: (1) stimulate fish production in the region; (2) encourage rational fisheries management policies; (3) facilitate the establishment of a suitable regional coordinating mechanism to ensure the most efficient use of limited national and international funds available for development of fisheries both in coastal waters and high seas; (4) assist the participating countries to fulfill their fisheries development priorities in an accelerated manner (specifically the Programme was to provide a focal point for fisheries development, stimulate investment in fisheries, introduce management systems and methods, and ensure the increase of the protein supply required to meet national objectives); and (5) carry out such programmes as requested by participating governments that meet the requirements of the UNDP inter-country programming such as the development of small-scale fisheries.
The Programme financed by UNDP and executed by FAO was sponsored by Cambodia (former Khmer Republic), Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Hong Kong (United Kingdom) and Vietnam and strongly supported by the Commission. Phase I of the Programme, the preparatory phase, initiated in January 1973, was completed in October 1973. Phase II, the operational phase, initiated in 1974, ended in 1984. The Programme also received funding support from CIDA, especially for the survey of the pelagic resources in the South China Sea, and from other multilateral funding institutions and donors to support its activities.
During its more than ten years of existence, SCSP served as the dynamic technical supporting arm of the Commission under the able leadership of its Programme Leader (Arthur G. Woodland). It also played a significant role as coordinator and catalyst, generating a large number of national and sub-regional projects which were financed by bilateral donors, multilateral agencies and regional and international banks, with a total project value of more that US$ 200 million7. The pelagic fishing component of the Programme, supported by CIDA, resulted in a better understanding of the distribution and sizes of the pelagic resources accessible to small-scale fisherfolk of the region. Whilst the CIDA funded component of the Programme ended in 1977, the Programme continued its activities supported by UNDP, with emphasis on the development of small-scale fisheries, including training, and coastal aquaculture. During its life span, the Programme successfully organized more than 40 workshops and seminars in the region, covering important aspects of fisheries development and management. The Programme also coordinated other sub-regional projects such as the South Indonesia fishery resources survey which were joined by Australia, Germany and Indonesia.
As indicated in the report of the Post-project Evaluation Mission conducted by UNDP/FAO/Member Countries, the governments of the countries bordering the South China Sea unanimously recognized the significant contributions of the South China Sea Programme to accelerated fisheries management and development in the region, especially the magnitude and high quality of assistance rendered by the Programme. Another long-term objective of the Programme was fulfilled four years before the end of the Programme when the Commission established a standing Committee for the Development and Management of the South China Sea (CDMSCS) in 1980 to provide a more permanent coordinating mechanism after the termination of the South China Sea Programme.
During the 1980-1984 period, the South China Sea Programme served as the technical supporting arm of CDMSCS. With the termination of SCSP in 1984, CDMSCS became increasingly concerned about its inability to play an effective coordinating role and undertake appropriate development and management action. During 1985-1991, at the recommendation of an ad hoc working group established by CDMSCS, the coordinating function in question was provided ad interim by the ASEAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-scale Coastal Fisheries Development Project (RAS/84/016). Attempts were subsequently made by the Commission to reactivate the technical supporting arm but to no avail due to the lack of required funding support.
The Indian Ocean Fishery Survey and Development Programme (IOP)
IOP was an inter-regional project supported by UNDP and other government cooperative programmes such as NORAD and SIDA. The preparatory phase of the Programme (Phase I) was initiated in 1970 and the operational phase in 1973. The Programme ended in 1978. Twenty-five countries participated in IOP. The participating countries which were concurrently members of the Commission were Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Thailand.
The long-term objective of IOP was to accelerate fisheries development in the participating countries with a view to contributing to overall economic development. In this respect, the strategies of the Programme were to develop and introduce rational management systems; stimulate investment and the earning of foreign exchange; provide a source of protein; and to raise the living standards of the populations especially those of small-scale fishing and fish farming communities. To achieve the long-term objective, the Programme implemented a number of activities, including the provision of assistance to the participating countries in various aspects of fisheries development through its Programme staff, through development-oriented surveys in selected waters, through the preparation of feasibility studies and training and through the facilitation of the dissemination of fishery information and data.
Amongst the major activities of the Programme which contributed to the increased understanding and knowledge of the status of the resources in the Indian Ocean and adjacent waters were: (i) exploratory surveys of fishery resources in the seas of Southern Indonesia and Northwest and Western Australia in 1978 (in collaboration with SCSP) and the survey of the fishery resources in the Bay of Bengal financed by SIDA in the late seventies.
IOP’s sub-regional project for the development of traditional fishing communities in the Bay of Bengal with funding from SIDA also provided valuable information and advice to the participating countries on how to raise the standard of living of small-scale fishing communities.
Technical assistance and advice were provided individually by the Programme to a number of APFIC countries such as Indonesia, India, Thailand, Sri Lanka in project formulation for technical assistance and project review.
More than 40 feasibility and technical studies on a wide range of topics covering fishery resources appraisal and management, resources economics, conservation of energy in fishing operations and small-scale fisheries development, and marine environment were undertaken by the Programme, and they significantly influenced the policies and strategies for fisheries development and management of the Programme countries in later years.
Cooperative Study of the Kuroshio and Adjacent Regions (CSK Programme)
Unlike the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE) carried out during the sixties, with emphasis primarily on physical, chemical and biological oceanography of the Indian Ocean, the CSK Programme (1962-1971), under the aegis of IOC, recognized fishery research and studies as an important element of its activities.
The Commission extended close cooperation to IOC from the inception of the Programme and was instrumental in promoting the inclusion of a fisheries component. It also appointed an Assistant International Coordinator for Fisheries (AICF). At its Twelfth Session (1966) the Commission established a Working Party on the Fisheries Aspect of the CSK to formulate fisheries study programmes. Three joint IPFC/IOC meetings on the fisheries aspects were held during 1966-68.
The achievements of APFIC were apparent from the results of the studies presented in the three symposia organized by IOC during 1968-71. These symposia yielded knowledge on the status of fishery resources and the fisheries exploiting them as well as the effects of the environment on the fluctuations in the abundance of the fishery resources in the CSK area. Under the guidance of the Commission, a series of species synopses were prepared by FAO on commercially important species in the CSK area, including saury (Cololabis saira); skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis); Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson); and mackerels (Rastrelliger brachysoma, R. kanagurta, R. faughni). The knowledge thus obtained was valuable in national and regional fisheries development and planning, in particular in the formulation of the proposal for the South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme.
APFIC’s cooperative programmes
To effect action-oriented activities, APFIC at its Fourteenth and Fifteenth Sessions (1970 and 1972) established a number of cooperative programmes, viz., (i) Cooperative Programme of Research on Coastal Aquaculture; (ii) Cooperative Programme on Fish Product Development, Processing and Marketing; and (iii) Cooperative Programme on Exchange of Information Among Fisheries Libraries, Institutions and Scientists in the APFIC Region.
More than 20 institutions in the region voluntarily participated in the Cooperative Research Programme on Coastal Aquaculture. The programme was technically supported by the Working Party on Coastal Aquaculture established by the Commission at its Twelfth Session (1966). It can be assumed that the development of this programme was a precursor to the formation of the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia and the Pacific (NACA) in later years. NACA is at present an intergovernmental body.
The Cooperative Programme on Fish Product Development, Processing and Marketing was approved at the Fifteenth Session of APFIC (1972). An IPFC Liaison Group on Fish Product Research and Development was also established to provide technical support for the Programme. This cooperative programme contributed to the improvement of the shelf-life of traditional fishery products; fish handling, particularly with the use of ice; fish inspection; quality assurance; plant sanitation; and to tropical fish product development in later years.
The Cooperative Programme on Exchange of Information Among Fisheries Libraries, Institutions and Scientists in the APFIC Region was established by the Commission at its Fifteenth Session with a view to facilitating the effective use of the fisheries library at the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, and stimulating the exchange of information including publications on research and investigations, newsletters, and information leaflets, amongst libraries, institutions and scientists in the region.
The Council was of the view that these programmes should be financed by a regional voluntary fund discussed during its Fifteenth to Seventeenth Sessions. Unfortunately, the development of this regional trust fund met with difficulties, and as a result, some of these cooperative programmes could not be implemented.
As indicated earlier in this section, in the course of becoming an action-oriented body, the Commission set up a number of working parties to consider specific priority issues in fisheries management and development. A new pattern of sessional work was also adopted. For example, besides the symposium organized in conjunction with each session, the Commission also placed on the agenda of each regular sessions the technical consideration of a specific issue(s) of fisheries. Some of the major issues which received the Commission’s attention are briefly described below.
Fishery statistics
Fishery statistics continued to be given priority attention by the Commission during this action-oriented period. At its Thirteenth Session (1968), the Commission accepted the invitation of IOCF to establish a joint IPFC/IOFC Working Party of Experts on Indian Ocean and Western Pacific Fishery Statistics, with special reference to tuna fishery statistics. With the assistance of the EPTA Regional Fishery Statistician based in Bangkok, the work done included recommendations on the formulation and implementation of a national fishery census and the adoption of the international classifications of fish species, fishing craft, fishing gear and fishing manpower for statistical reporting.
At its First Session (Bangkok, 1-5 December 1969), the Joint Working Party discussed the minimum requirements of a national fishery statistical system and identified six categories of statistics to be collected, i.e., fishing establishments and fishing labourers households, fishing manpower, fishing craft, fishing units, catch and fishing effort and value of catch. The Joint Working also recommended factors and principles in defining boundaries of large statistical sea area in Indian Ocean and Western Central Pacific8. This work has served a sound basis for the development of fishery statistical collection in the region in the later year.
Management of tuna and other fishery resources
At the Fourteenth Session of APFIC (1970), one of the substantive items discussed was the management of common-use resources and development of fishing potential. In endorsing the recommendations arising out of that discussion, the Commission established a Special Committee on the Management of Indo-Pacific Tuna to assist it in the appraisal of tuna stocks and the status of the fisheries exploiting them in the region, as well as in the determination of measures that should be undertaken in the development planning and management of the tuna fisheries in the region. A number of meetings were held jointly with the IOFC Committee on Management of Indian Ocean Tuna. The two committees were assisted by a joint Working Party of Experts on Stock Assessment of Tuna. The work of these committees shed light on the level of exploitation of the large tuna stocks and the potential for expansion of the surface fisheries for small and medium sized tuna in the Indo-Pacific area. The South China Sea Programme also assisted in the appraisal of the state of the tuna stocks in the South China Sea area.
Pelagic fishery resources
Research on the short mackerel (Rastrelliger spp.)and other pelagic species stimulated by the Commission in the formative years yielded very fruitful results. Countries such as Malaysia, Philippines and Thailand, through their research, were able to acquire more knowledge on the biology and bionomics of the short mackerel (R. brachysoma) resources. The population dynamics of the stock inhabiting the west coast of the Gulf of Thailand were well understood by the early eighties. The current mackerel production of Thailand, under the management measures which were based on these scientific studies, is now at a level of approximately 100,000 tons annually as compared with the lowest production of some 20,000 tons recorded in the late sixties. In Indonesia, the biology and life history of the sardine, particularly the stock inhabiting the Bali Straits were also well understood. With impetus given by the South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme, through its training courses and workshops, stock assessments of other pelagic resources were also undertaken, thus contributing to the knowledge of the pelagic resources in the South China Sea and its contiguous waters.
Demersal fishery resources
During 1964-76, there was a rapid development of trawl fisheries exploiting demersal resources in the Gulf of Thailand. The Commission, at its Eleventh Session in 1964, considered problems associated with the trawl fisheries development of Malaysia and gave pertinent recommendations to the Government. As the problems experienced by Malaysia were common in many countries of the region, the Commission decided to establish a Working Party on Trawling to compile and analyze available data obtained from the trawl fisheries in the region. The development of trawl fisheries was further stimulated by a paper of Professor Klaus Tiews, former Director of the Fisheries Research Board of the Federal Republic of Germany on “The Possibilities for Further Development of the South East Asia Fisheries” presented at the Twelfth Session of the Commission in 1966. At the Thirteenth Session (1968), the Commission held a symposium on demersal fisheries which contributed towards the better understanding of the status of these resources.
In the seventies, the work of the South China Sea Programme, the Technical Supporting Arm of the Commission, especially through its several workshops and seminars organized on the subject, resulted in the increased knowledge of the state of the stocks of demersal fish in the South China Sea and its adjacent waters, which provided the scientific basis for the management of these important resources.
Aquaculture development
The contribution of aquaculture to food security and income earnings has long been recognized by APFIC. It may be recalled that in the formative years of the Commission, an inventory of knowledge on the status of aquaculture in the region such as cultured areas, cultured species and traditional techniques employed was undertaken. Emphasis was on freshwater fish culture development, and training in this area was assigned a high priority. During the period under review, attention was given to other types of aquaculture and the application of modern techniques to enhancing aquaculture production. A Symposium on Coastal Aquaculture held in conjunction with its Fourteenth Session (1970) provided useful information on the status, potential and problems of coastal aquaculture in the APFIC member countries during the sixties. The symposium brought to light problems associated with conflicts in the use of coastal zones and identified gaps in knowledge concerning technical and economic aspects of coastal aquaculture development9.
As a follow-up to the above symposium, the Commission discussed issues related to coastal aquaculture and environment under an item on technical and scientific matters at the Fifteenth Session (1972). The discussion covered a number of issues relevant to the subject, including the effects of pollution on aquaculture, the use of wastes for aquaculture operations and conflicts in land and water use in relation to aquaculture. Recommendations arising out of the discussions were submitted to the Member Governments and FAO for consideration and appropriate action. Follow-up action was also taken by the Commission through its Working Party on Aquaculture and Environment during the intersessional period 1972-76.
One of the recommendations arising out of the above Symposium resulted in the establishment of the Cooperative Research Programme on Coastal Aquaculture as mentioned earlier.
Fisheries development planning
Although fisheries development planning received the Commission’s attention in its formative years, the issue received increased attention from the APFIC members during this action-oriented period. This was due to a number of factors, including rising sectoral and intra-sectoral conflicts for land and water use, intense exploitation of fishery resources both marine and inland waters, which necessitated the setting up of appropriate schemes for fisheries management; as well as the necessity to effect rational fisheries development.
To assist its Member Countries in the accelerated development of their fishing industries without jeopardizing the health of the fish stocks, a Symposium on Economic and Social Aspects of National Fisheries Planning and Development was held during the Sixteenth Session of the Commission (1974). The Symposium identified a number of problem areas including poor infrastructure for planning; lack of appropriate education, research and extension activities; limited resources assessment; ineffective resource and fisheries management; lack of knowledge in planning methodology and project preparation; poor processing, marketing and distribution; ineffective fishermen’s cooperatives; lack of business management experience; and lack of adequate credit for small-scale fishermen.
An ad hoc group to generate action plans arising from the Symposium was established by the Commission at that Session. To assist APFIC, the South China Sea Programme played a prominent role in the late seventies in implementing several of the recommendations arising from the Symposium. A number of workshops and seminars were organized by the South China Sea Programme for the benefit of its participating countries on selected topics such as project preparation; stock assessment; and fisheries management. The Programme, upon request from its participating countries, also provided the advice and services of its experts to assist them in the planning of resources surveys and assessment, and in the formulation of development projects for technical assistance.
Dissemination of information
Due to the limited budget of the Commission during 1962-80, a number of publications listed during the formative years were not published. The Commission tried to reactivate the publication of the Current Affairs Bulletin, a newsletter produced occasionally by the Commission, but to no avail because of the lack of budget. Nevertheless, the Commission managed to produce occasional technical papers on specific subjects. A vast amount of information on fisheries research, management and development is contained in the Proceedings of the Commission; during the period under review, the Proceedings contained three sections, viz., report of the session; report of the symposium organized with the session; and report of its committees, working parties and/or technical and scientific matters. The publications of the Commission are widely distributed throughout the world.
The “golden era” was followed by the “EEZ Programme” period. At the beginning of this period, the Commission examined itself and the Members agreed that if APFIC were to play a more active role, the Commission should, itself, formulate and execute projects of relevance to the region with its Chairman mobilizing financial resources for this purpose.
By the beginning of this period, the Third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea had completed most of the essential negotiations on the draft of UNCLOS. There was no doubt that the concept of exclusive economic zones, where coastal States would have sovereign rights with regard to the exploitation and conservation of the resources therein, would be an integral part of this convention.
On the recommendation of the Committee on Fisheries, FAO launched in 1979 a comprehensive Programme of Assistance for the Development and Management of Fisheries in Exclusive Economic Zones (the EEZ Programme). The Programme had two broad objectives; namely, (i) to meet the immediate needs of coastal States in the development and management of their fisheries through the deployment of fishery policy and planning missions and provision of technical assistance in specialized fields; and (ii) to improve the basic understanding of these countries as to how fisheries in exclusive economic zones can best be developed and managed.
The Programme, designed to respond to the specific needs of groups of countries in natural management areas10, was planned to be delivered through a global network of multidisciplinary regional and sub-regional programmes, financed by UNDP and/or other interested donors. It was also planned that the activities could be carried out by bodies external to the UN system, if so wished by the governments concerned. The regional programmes of direct interest to the Commission, in the context of the EEZ Programme, were: (i) the South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme; (ii) the Bay of Bengal Fisheries Development Programme; (iii) the South Pacific Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme; and (iv) the Tuna Management Programme in the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
Whilst FAO was formulating the EEZ Programme, APFIC was already aware of the implications of the new regime of the Sea on the management and development of the fisheries in the region, especially with reference to its own role. There was general agreement that the management of the fisheries in individual exclusive economic zones was the responsibility of the coastal States concerned. However, for those stocks commonly exploited by two or more countries, i.e. shared or transboundary stocks, the management plans should be worked out by the countries that exploit them, and the Commission could provide a convenient forum for the formulation of such plans.
APFIC gave strong support to the FAO/EEZ Programme. The Commission at its Nineteenth Session (1980) immediately gave priority to the monitoring, control and surveillance of fisheries (MCS), the development of an information network, and fisheries training. The Commission also advised Member Governments to ensure that the opportunities and challenges offered to each national fisheries were fully taken into account when planning and utilizing the funds available for the implementation of the EEZ programme.
To ensure an effective response to the needs of the member countries under the regime of extended national jurisdiction over fisheries and to have a more permanent coordinating mechanism, the Commission at its Nineteenth Session (1980) established a Committee for the Development and Management of Fisheries in the South China Sea (CDMSCS), based on the recommendations of the Seventh Session of the Coordinating Committee for the South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme and the Fifty-eighth Session of the Executive Committee (1980). CDMSCS took over the work of the Coordinating Committee for the South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme. According to the plan of operation of the EEZ Programme, sub-regional committees such as CDMSCS would be individually provided with locally-based multidisciplinary technical support units, financed mainly from the extrabudgetary resources of FAO. A good example of a multidisciplinary technical support unit was the FAO/UNDP South China Sea Fisheries Development and Coordinating Programme, a brainchild of the Commission launched in 1974. The Commission at its Eighteenth Session (1978) agreed that SCSP was an excellent example of UN assistance in identifying development opportunities and tackling development problems, and expressed concern that inadequate funding would diminish the impact of SCSP.
In the course of strengthening the action-oriented activities especially in the implementation of the EEZ Programme, the Commission also had at its disposal two other committees, viz. the Special Committee on Management of Indo-Pacific Tuna and the Standing Committee on Resources Research and Development (SCORRAD) supported by working parties to assist in fishery resources research and management.
APFIC, through its subsidiary bodies and the South China Sea Programme, contributed significantly during this third period of its existence, by helping the developing member countries to attain the goal of self-reliance in the development of their fisheries. Considerable knowledge was gained on the status of the fishery resources, especially small and medium-sized pelagic resources which are accessible to small-scale fisherfolk in the South China Sea. Advice and technical assistance were provided to the countries in the development of policies and plans for the rational development and management of their fishery resources, with special reference to coastal resources.
Improved methodologies and techniques employed in modern aquaculture and in environmental protection were introduced to the member countries through symposia, workshops and seminars as well as through the work of relevant working parties and committees such as SCORRAD. Unfortunately, this well-intended EEZ Programme had to be phased out a few years later because of the lack of adequate funding support, especially from major sources such as UNDP.
Likewise, the South China Sea Programme which had been praised highly by the governments of the countries bordering the South China Sea for its significant contributions to the acceleration of fisheries management and development in the region had to be terminated in 1984. Substantive work initiated by this noteworthy programme, such as management studies of coastal and offshore fishery resources including shared stocks, the development of small-scale fisheries and training remained incomplete when the Programme ended.
As indicated earlier, at the end of SCSP, the coordinating mechanism was provided on an interim basis by the ASEAN project on coastal small-scale fisheries development (1985-1991). An attempt was made to reactivate the technical arm of CDMSCS; however, the Commission, at its Twenty-second Session (1987), was informed by FAO that there was no progress in obtaining funding for the project proposal. Hence, the activities of CDMSCS were supported mainly by the Regular Programme budget of FAO. CDMSCS was replaced by the Committee on Marine Fisheries (COMAF) after APFIC amended its Agreement in 1993.
The second major event that took place during this third period of APFIC, which had an impact on the programmes of activity of the Commission during the latter half of that period was the 1984 FAO World Conference on Fisheries Management and Development. The Conference was organized to help translate into practical solutions the far-reaching concepts of the new regime of the oceans created by UNCLOS. The Conference endorsed a Strategy for Fisheries Management and Development which contained principles and guidelines for consideration by governments and organizations when planning and implementing fisheries policies and programmes. It also approved five associated Programmes of Action designed to assist developing countries, mostly at regional and sub-regional levels, to increase their fish production and improve their individual and collective self-reliance in fisheries. These Programmes were (1) the planning, management and development of fisheries; (2) the improvement of small-scale fisheries; (3) aquaculture development; (4) international trade in fish and fishery products; and (5) the promotion of the role of fisheries in alleviating undernutrition. The Programmes of Action provided a comprehensive and coherent framework for international development assistance by multilateral and bilateral donors, based on the needs of the developing countries and the policies of the donors. The Conference also adopted several resolutions of importance to all programmes such as the protection of the aquatic environment; the role of small-scale fishermen; a special fisheries programme for land-locked countries; and the promotion of TCDC and ECDC.
As a result of this Conference, FAO intensified its efforts to seek extrabudgetary resources to finance key regional and sub-regional projects under the five Programmes of Action. More than two-thirds of the estimated total funding of US$ 15 million was pledged by interested bilateral and multilateral donor agencies and financing institutions for the activities to be implemented in 1985. The Organization also earmarked part of its Regular Programme budget for assistance in strengthening fisheries activities in developing countries and adjusting regional and sub-regional fisheries activities to conform to the framework of the five Programmes of Action.
When reviewing the Programmes of Action for the Asia-Pacific region, the Commission at its Twenty-first Session (1984) concurred with the recommendations of CDMSCS and SCORRAD that priority should be accorded to the following activities in the coming years: assessment of shared stocks; fisheries management in exclusive economic zones, including the monitoring, control and surveillance of fisheries (MCS); strengthening of the Indo-Pacific tuna development and management programme; improvement of quality control and inspection systems for processed fish and fishery products; training of scientists and administrators; inland fisheries development; and small-scale fisheries development.
In the Asia-Pacific region, with the recommendations of APFIC, a number of workshops and seminars pertaining to specific areas of fisheries management and development were organized with funding support mainly from AIDAB (now AusAID), NORAD, SIDA, DANIDA and the Government of Japan. Several countries benefited from the policy and planning missions launched by FAO at their request to assist them in specific areas of fisheries management and development; for example, the strengthening of a fisheries management framework in Thailand. The improvement of fishery statistical data collection and analysis in Indonesia and the Philippines was also achieved with technical assistance provided by FAO under the EEZ Umbrella Programme (project GCP/INT/398/NOR).
Accomplishments of the Commission on some of its key activities during the EEZ Programme period are highlighted below.
As regards the management of marine fishery resources, the Symposium on the Exploitation and Management of the Marine Fishery Resources in Southeast Asia organized in conjunction with the Twenty-second Session of APFIC in 1987 provided useful information on the status of the resources as well as on the problems associated with the management of the fisheries. The recommendations of the Commission were valuable in the development and management planning of the member countries in their attempts to effect rational utilization of the fishery resources in their exclusive economic zones. The SCORRAD activities increased the understanding of the recruitment process of shrimp stocks which is vital in the planning of the management of shrimp fisheries. Through the support of the Government of Japan a study on the distribution and abundance of small and neritic tuna in the South China Sea and Western Central Pacific, and a study on the interaction between offshore industrial and coastal artisanal tuna fisheries were carried out.
For inland fisheries, considerable progress was made during this period by the Working Party of Experts on Inland Fisheries. Increased knowledge on reservoir fisheries management was obtained from projects such as those executed in Sri Lanka and Pakistan11. The Workshop on Strategies for the Management of Fisheries and Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystems and the Expert Consultation on Inland Fisheries of the Larger Indo-Pacific Islands were held in Bangkok during 1986, the results of which have added much to the knowledge of the inland fisheries resources of the region and their management problems.
With respect to aquaculture development, the period witnessed the evolution of the Network of Aquaculture Centers for Asia and the Pacific (NACA) which was conceived by the Commission from a regional project to an intergovernmental body in 1987. The Commission was instrumental in the development of a sub-regional project financed by TCP for the investigation of the outbreaks of the epizootic ulcerative fish disease in Southeast Asia.
The activities concerning post-harvest technology development progressed very satisfactorily through the Commission’s Working Party on Fish Technology and Marketing as well as through the Cooperative Research Programme with funding from the Government of Australia. This period also witnessed the transformation of INFOFISH from a regional project initiated by the Commission to an intergovernmental body.
During the past decade, there have been a number of developments which have implicated fisheries and consequently APFIC’s activities. Although trends of marine fish landings in the region have continued to rise, the yield capacities of several traditional exploited stocks have already reached their limits. The rising demand for fish from the expanding population of the region and from markets outside the region as well as the policy of a number of governments of allowing citizens open access to the fishery resources have led to the rapid expansion of marine fishery production. With increasing fishing pressure, many coastal fish stocks in major fishing grounds such as the Bay of Bengal, the Gulf of Thailand and the South China Sea have been fully exploited or overfished. In inland waters, overfishing and environmental degradation have likewise taken place. Aquaculture has developed rapidly during the past two decades and contributed to the increased fish production and income as well as foreign exchange earnings in many countries; however, intensive aquaculture development has also resulted in environmental degradation.
The rapid expansion of other economic sectors in the coastal areas as well as population increase have compounded the issue, with a negative impact on coastal resources and an increase in the rate of environmental degradation.
With depleted resources and the steadily increasing population, the price of fish in general has been on the rise. Concern was expressed by APFIC during its past few sessions that this would have a negative impact on consumption by the poorer segments of the population, thus affecting food security particularly in the low-income food deficit countries. Recent studies carried out by FAO on the demand and supply prospects of fisheries in the region indicated that by the year 2010 the region’s demand for fish would be in the order of 24 million tons above the current production levels. This amount would probably not be met with significant increases in marine fish production. In addition, many coastal fish stocks need to be rehabilitated urgently through effective fisheries management schemes with special attention to reduction in fishing effort. To satisfy this increasing demand, aquaculture, and to a lesser extent, inland fisheries, may provide better opportunities for increasing regional fish production, especially in landlocked countries; however, improved management systems are also needed for accelerated sustainable aquaculture development, rehabilitation of inland fishery resources and alleviation of environmental degradation12.
At the Twenty-third Session of APFIC in 1990, it was generally agreed that the aforementioned developments would not lead to the sustainable use of fishery resources and that urgent attention was needed to promote responsible fisheries in both inland and marine waters as well as to accelerate development of sustainable aquaculture.
The nineties has also witnessed the adoption by the world community of several fisheries and fisheries-related global instruments and initiatives mentioned earlier. They were adopted because of the common concern that the implementation of UNCLOS had not yet achieved the long-term objective of rational management and sustainable utilization of the fishery resources of the world oceans. Some of these instruments and initiatives are legally binding whilst others comprise principles and guidelines for implementation by interested parties. The above instruments and initiatives are interrelated and were formulated with the common objective of facilitating the effective implementation of UNCLOS, with special reference to assistance to developing coastal States in the management and sustainable development of fishery resources both in the exclusive economic zones and in the high seas. The role of regional fishery bodies to effect sustainable fisheries development in their respective areas has been recognized by all of the aforementioned instruments and initiatives. The Committee on Fisheries at its Twenty-fifth Session in 1995 fully agreed that regional fishery bodies should be strengthened to enable them to cope more effectively with new and additional responsibilities as contained in the recent instruments and initiatives.
APFIC has since the late eighties endeavoured to adjust its role so that it can respond effectively to changes in the fisheries situation of the region. In compliance with the recommendation of the Committee on Fisheries at its Eighteenth Session (1989), APFIC undertook an in-depth review of its functions and structure with a view to revitalizing it and strengthening its activities in the technical and policy field. This important task led to amendments to the Agreement of APFIC at the Commission’s Twenty-fourth Session (1993). The amendments, especially on the functions of the Commission, have paved the way for the Commission to play a more action-oriented role in fisheries management and sustainable development; for example, the Commission, in addition to its encouraging and recommending roles, can now coordinate and undertake research and development activities in all aspects of fisheries. Under the amended Agreement, the name of the Commission was changed from the Indo-Pacific Fishery Commission (IPFC) to the Asia-Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC). The Commission is assisted by two new committees, namely, the Committee on Marine Fisheries (COMAF) and the Aquaculture and Inland Fisheries Committee (AIFIC). With the establishment of these two committees, the Standing Committee on Resources Research and Development (SCORRAD) and the Special Committee on Management of Indo-Pacific Tuna were disbanded and the activities of the Committee for the Development and Management of Fisheries in the South China Sea (CDMSCS) were taken over by COMAF. Four working parties were established to provide support to the two committees, viz., Working Party on Marine Fisheries; Working Party on Aquaculture and Inland Fisheries; Joint Working Party on Fish Technology and Marketing; and Joint Working Party on Fishery Statistics and Economics (see Appendix 8).
The APFIC Agreement was further amended and its Rules of Procedure revised at the Twenty-fifth Session of the Commission in 1996. With these amendments, additional functions of APFIC include the promotion of programmes for mariculture and coastal fisheries enhancement.
With these amendments, it is hoped that APFIC will be able to cope with new challenges confronting the sustainable development of the fisheries sector in the years to come. The FAO Regional Conference for Asia and the Pacific at its Twenty-fourth Session (Myanmar, 1998) unanimously recognized the important role of APFIC in this sustainable fisheries development and agreed that the Commission was one of the best mechanisms for joint cooperation and coordination to achieve fisheries sustainability. The Conference recommended that in the future APFIC should endeavour to harmonize national fisheries policies aimed at attaining fishery resource sustainability; accelerate the transfer of technology and capacity building in the fisheries sector; and translate research results into effective management options for the region.
The key activities of APFIC during the “sustainable development” period, geared towards fisheries management and sustainable development are highlighted below.
Symposia
The symposia organized during the past three sessions of APFIC; viz., Artificial Reefs and Fish Aggregating Devices as Resources Enhancement and Fisheries Management Tools (Twenty-third Session, 1990); Socio-economic Issues in Coastal Fisheries Management (Twenty-fourth Session, 1993); and Environmental Aspects of Responsible Fisheries (Twenty-fifth Session, 1996) clearly reflect the current direction of APFIC towards fisheries management. These symposia have provided innovative ideas and pertinent recommendations valuable for the formulation and implementation of sustainable fisheries development policies and planning of the member countries.
For 1998, a symposium on fish utilization in the Asia-Pacific region is planned. This symposium will address issues concerning fish processing, bycatch utilization, fishery products and trade regulations which became urgent issues in its Member States.
Fishery research
The technical activities of the Commission, as revealed by the reports of its subsidiary bodies showed considerable progress during the period under review. Scientists of several countries actively participated in cooperative research project on shrimp recruitment under SCORRAD, and their cooperative efforts have further contributed to the better understanding of the behavior and life history of the shrimp stocks in the region, thus providing a scientific basis for the management of these shrimp resources. Unfortunately, this research programme had to be terminated after the funding of Australia ended in 1989.
The Commission at its Twenty-fourth Session (1993) was of the view that the status of small pelagic resources and fisheries in the region had not been evaluated since 197813. In response, the First Session of the APFIC Working Party on Marine Fisheries (Bangkok, May 1997) devoted its discussion to issues related to the management of small pelagic fish stocks, the abundance of which are known to be sensitive to environmental changes14.
The Commission has continued to give priority attention to the strengthening of management-oriented resources research to back up management decisions. At its Twenty-fifth Session (1996), it endorsed the establishment of a regional cooperative research programme similar to that for the Bay of Bengal, based on 14 priority areas in coastal capture fisheries, offshore fisheries and coastal aquaculture (Appendix 11). It noted that the Secretariat had initiated arrangements for networking of national research institutions in South and Southeast Asia to facilitate the formulation of project proposals according to the research priorities identified.
Fishery statistics
The Commission has continued to give high priority to fishery statistics during this last period. It has recommended that national fishery statistical systems be strengthened to ensure reliable data and timely availability of the statistics. At its Twenty-third Session (1990), the Commission recommended that inland fisheries statistics be separated into inland and aquaculture components. This recommendation may have encouraged FAO to compile and publish aquaculture statistics in recent years.
Through the Commission’s Joint Working Party on Fishery Statistics and Economic, the current status of fishery and aquaculture statistics has been kept under review. The first session of this Working Party, held in Bangkok in August 1997, discussed extensively ways and means of improving the collection, compilation and dissemination of fishery and aquaculture statistics; strengthening regional cooperation for fishery statistical programme; and enhancing the national catch value statistics. It considered other issues such as the economic performance indicators for fisheries and major fishing area boundary modifications. The work of the Working Party resulted in a number of valuable recommendations for national, regional and international action.
Sustainable aquaculture development
To help attain sustainable aquaculture development, various issues have been addressed by the Commission in recent years. These include improved capability in dealing with fish diseases; strengthening of quarantine procedures and facilities; coastal resources surveys; environmental impact assessments; development of aquaculture diets (aquafeeds); economic assessment of aquaculture technologies and studies of domestic markets for aquaculture produce. Member States have been encouraged to give higher priority to further development of aquaculture and culture-based fisheries; development of rural aquaculture; and strengthening of the legal aspects of aquaculture development.
Inland fisheries development
There have been a number of recommendations arising out of the Commission’s sessions during the past decade with respect to inland fisheries development. These included the need for the member countries to implement programmes of species transfer in a responsible manner; strengthening of the management of capture fisheries in reservoirs, rivers and irrigation canals; cold water fisheries development; and improvement of the reliability of inland capture fisheries statistics.
Fish processing technology development
Fish processing technology and marketing development has continued to receive the attention of the Commission during this last period. At its Twenty-fifth Session (1996), the Commission approved the continuation of the collaborative research network in fish technology to continue research on quality control and standards as well as inspection of fish and fishery products. Priority has been assigned to research on the full untilization of low-value species and by-catch in the region.
The vital role of regional cooperation in sustainable fisheries development is recognized by UNCLOS and the global fisheries and fisheries-related instruments and initiatives mentioned earlier. It has been stressed by the FAO Governing Bodies including the FAO Regional Conference for Asia and the Pacific and COFI at their recent sessions. Also in the past sessions of APFIC and its subsidiary bodies such as CDMSCS, the important role of regional and international cooperation in the strengthening of the Members’ capabilities in fishery research, development and management was reaffirmed.
It is noted that during the past three decades there has been a proliferation of organizations and programmes involved with fisheries and maritime affairs in the region. Whilst expressing concern over the limited development assistance funds available to these organizations, APFIC felt that the scarce funds should be used more efficiently to obtain maximum benefit for the region. In the Asia-Pacific region, there are more than 20 intergovernmental organizations, both within and outside the framework of the United Nations as well as non-governmental organizations, engaged in promoting cooperation and collaboration in the areas of fisheries research, development and management. These bodies include those that have management functions and regulatory powers such as the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission (I-ATTC) for tuna conservation and management in the eastern Pacific Ocean; the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC), recently established by FAO under Article XIV of its Constitution; and the South Pacific Forum Fisheries Agencies (FFA) which regulates access of tuna vessels of distant-water fishing nations in its area of competence.
The other regional bodies under the umbrella of FAO that do not have regulatory powers but provide policy guidance and scientific advice on resource conservation and fisheries management include APFIC and IOFC. It should be noted that the latter will soon be dissolved at the recommendation of the last FAO Conference and the activities of its Bay of Bengal Committee will be taken over by APFIC.
The regional and sub-regional organizations outside the FAO umbrella that do not have regulatory powers include: the Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center (SEAFDEC); the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia and the Pacific (NACA); the Mekong River Commission (MRC); the Marketing Information and Advisory Services for Fish Products in the Asia-Pacific Region (INFOFISH); the North Pacific Marine Science Organization (PICES); and the Pacific Community. Other bodies with a broad fishery interest are the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN); Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC); the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council (PECC); the International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM);and the South East Asian Programme in Ocean Law Policy and Management (SEAPOL).
There is thus a regional framework for cooperation to effect sustainable fisheries development in the Asia-Pacific region. However, the activities of these organizations need to be coordinated with a view to achieving the objective of making wise use of the limited development assistance funds and avoiding the duplication of effort.
APFIC, during its long history, has maintained liaisons with many of the above-mentioned organizations, especially with those working in the Southeast Asian sub-region. It has collaborated with several of these bodies in organizing workshops, seminars and training courses on various aspects of fisheries development and management. However, in order to ensure the effectiveness of the framework for regional cooperation, the fisheries management mandate of APFIC must be strengthened and the activities of organizations concerned with fisheries in the region coordinated, to achieve the optimum utilization of limited development assistance funds and to avoid the duplication of effort. It was suggested that such coordination should be reinforced through the establishment of a permanent intersecretariat working party or committee serviced by one of these organizations such as APFIC15.
To sum up the activities and accomplishments of the fifty years of APFIC, it can be said that there appears a consistent evolutionary trend in the recommendations of the Commission to its Members. In the formative years (1949-1962) the Commission took stock of the fisheries situation of the area and promoted the growth and development of fishery research and administration in its member countries. In the second period (1962-1980), when the Commission attempted to develop an action-oriented role, more attention was directed to practical features of the rapidly changing fishing industries of the region as well as to the fisheries planning and development issues. During the third period (1980-1990) the Commission’s efforts were directed to developing interregional and regional programmes aimed at assisting its developing member States to achieve the goal of self-reliance in the development and management of fisheries in compliance with UNCLOS. And in the last decade increased efforts have been directed to assisting the countries of the region in achieving sustainable fisheries development and rational management of the fishery resources both in their exclusive economic zones and in the high seas.
It has been the unanimous opinion of the Commission’s Member States that the Commission’s deliberations, its resolutions and recommendations have contributed considerably towards their governments’ decisions on fisheries policies and strategies in the course of attaining self-reliance in fisheries management and development. This opinion is evident from the Commission’s Proceedings, especially the addresses of the government authorities given at the opening of its regular sessions. As indicated earlier, the Members at the last Session of the Commission in Korea in 1996 reiterated the beneficial role of the Commission in the strengthening of their work towards rational fishery management and the sustainable use of the fishery resources.
