1.3 Sub-regional synthesis

1.3.1 North Africa

The North African sub-region includes six countries, namely Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco and Tunisia.

These countries are members of the League of Arab States, and the Organization for Agricultural Development (AOAD), which aims at developing the agricultural sector of its member countries.

All North African countries, except Mauritania, are part of the Mediterranean eco-region. However, most parts of the sub-region are deserts or semi-deserts covered by drought resistant shrublands (e.g. Acacia spp., Argania spinosa, palms, alpha grass). Forests mainly cover the northern mountainous parts of the region. The forest cover in North Africa ranges from nine percent in Morocco and less than one percent in Mauritania, Libya and Egypt. Main forest species include Pinus spp., Abies spp., Juniperus spp, Quercus spp. and Populus spp.. Most of the lowland forests (e.g. Quercus suber) have already been cleared. Forest vegetation has been replaced with open woodlands (e.g. Pine or Thuya woodlands) or maquis, an evergreen short tree, and shrub community.

Main NWFP

Overall, the NWFP used in North Africa include edible plants (especially fruits, mushrooms, seeds like Pinus halepensis, P. pinea, and oils such as Argania spinosa), cork (Quercus suber), fibres (Stipa tenacissima), medicinal plants (e.g. the tooth brush tree Salvadora persica), aromatic plants (e.g. Mentha virdis, Acacia farnesiana, Eucalyptus spp.), fodder, colorants (e.g. Acacia seyal, Anogeissus leiocarpus), tannins (Acacia nilotica), resins (e.g. Commiphora africana) and gums (Acacia senegal). Animal products are bushmeat, trophy hunting, honey, insecticides and fungicides.

Table 6. Main NWFP in North Africa

The most important NWFP in the North African sub-region are cork, medicinal and aromatic plants and forage.

Cork is one of the main NWFP in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia. Although 33 percent of world cork forests are located in North Africa, this region only contributes nine percent to the world cork production of 350 000 tons. In particular, Algeria has a low cork production (two percent of world production), if compared with its extensive resources of cork forests, making up for some 21 percent of world cork forests (Natural Cork Quality Council, 2000). A major importer of cork products is the European Union with 56 percent of total production (WWF, undated)¹¹.

Table 7. World cork production

Source: Natural Cork Quality Council (2000)¹²

Cork is mainly used industrially for the production of cork stoppers (some 25 billion stoppers are used per year), as construction material (insulation, floors), in the naval industry (life belts), in transport, the textile industry, the pharmaceutical and shoe industry (sole manufacturing) and as packing and linoleum (WWF, undated).

Other important NWFP of major socio-economic importance in North Africa are medicinal and aromatic plants such as Thymus spp., Laurus nobilis and Rosmarinus officinalis. Egypt and Morocco are among the top ten exporting countries world-wide (number 5 and 9 respectively) and the most important African exporting countries of medicinal plant material. For these products, an intensification of the collection of medicinal and aromatic plants and a re-evaluation and re-consideration of traditional knowledge in the application of these plant products have been observed (WWF, undated).

Finally, forage, mainly leaves derived from trees, shrubs and bushes are of high importance in North Africa. They play an essential role in animal based production systems (e.g. goats, sheep, dromedaries, and cattle), which contribute significantly to the local and national economy in the region.

Ecological aspects

Most of the NWFP are derived from forests, woodlands and shrublands. Most of the species exploited are grown in natural stands. The establishment of new Quercus suber (cork oak) plantations in user countries outside their natural distribution, such as North and South America, Australia, and South Africa, has failed (Brendel, 2000)¹³.

Over-exploitation related to the use of medicinal and aromatic plants has been reported. Overgrazing contributes to the degradation of (semi-) arid areas through desertification and erosion.

Socio-economic aspects

In North Africa, like in the entire Near East sub-region, NWFP provided by forests and trees are often more important than timber production. Sylvopastoralism for livestock production (often based on nomadic systems) is the main land use system in many of these countries. Forest grazing and forest fodder, therefore, represent a major contribution to the livelihood of the local population and to the national economy. Collection, grading and processing of aromatic and medicinal plants is often a major income generating activity. In Tunisia, for example, essential oils are important commodities. In 1996, the export of Tunisian essential oils such as rosemary, myrtle or lemon reached 230 tons worth US$3.2 million.

The management of the argan tree (Argania spinosa) for edible oil, fuelwood and fodder production supports the subsistence of 2 million rural people, mainly women, in Morocco who spent 20 000 000 working days/year only for the extraction of edible oils. In cork producing countries, trade in cork products mainly for export is of economic importance. Currently, prices for cork products are rising, since world demand can not be satisfied by the producing countries. Taking into consideration that the substitution of natural cork products such as stoppers with artificial products is unlikely, the market value of cork products is expected to rise in the future.

WWF (undated) identified four main constraints, which hinder the sustainable use of NWFP in general, and that of medicinal and aromatic plants, in particular:

· low prices paid to gatherers;

· insufficient legislation regarding plant harvesting and trade;

· lack of awareness, among end users, of the detrimental effects arising from the demand; and

· reluctance among traders to provide information related to their practices.

However, the same study concludes that "there is a great economic incentive for countries in the Mediterranean region to develop the NWFP production potential of their forests and generate positive socio-economic benefits for rural populations". Taking into account the current production of NWFP in the Mediterranean region (the annual total production of NWFP is estimated to exceed 12 million tons), WWF concludes that the production could be tripled in the future.

1.3.2 East Africa

East Africa includes the eight countries Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda.

All these countries, except Tanzania, are members of the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD), one of the main political and economic organizations at the Horn of Africa. IGAD has been established in 1996 as the successor to the Intergovernmental Authority on Drought and Development (IGADD), which was created in 1986 by the six drought stricken countries of Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda. The name of IGAD's predecessor already indicates the focus of the member states in combating droughts and food scarcity due to the climate situation of the region.

At the same time, these countries are part of the East Sahelian Zone. A large portion of the countries is covered by arid and semi-arid lands with low precipitation and high evaporation. The mean national forest cover in the sub-region reaches 13 percent: Tanzania (37 percent) and Uganda (30 percent) are the countries with the highest forest cover; less than one percent of forest cover is documented for Djibouti and Somalia. Typical open forests in the region are open Acacia and Commiphora woodlands, dominated by Acacia spp. (e.g. A. nilotica, A. bussei) and Commiphora spp. respectively. In Tanzania, miombo woodlands characterised by Brachystegia spp., are an important forest type. In the drier parts of East Africa, bush- and shrubland are dominant. Lowland moist forests, which belong to the Central African moist forests, can be found in Uganda and Kenya.

Other important forest types include the afromontane upland forests (e.g. Juniperus procera, Olea africana), coastal and riverine forests and mangroves.

Main NWFP

In East Africa, a multitude of NWFP is exploited for direct consumption and/or commercialization. The country profiles document the utilization of gums and resins, construction material, bee products, medicinal plants, dying and tanning materials, fodder plants, bushmeat, edible plants, utensils, aromatic oils, living animals and insects. The main NWFP for the respective countries can be found in Table 8.

Table 8. Main NWFP in East Africa

The sub-regional analysis of the available information shows that exudates (gum arabic, olibanum, myrrh, opopanax), medicinal plants and bee products are among the most important NWFP in East Africa.

Gums and resins are mainly exploited in the "gum belt" in Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea. The main product is gum arabic obtained from Acacia senegal and A. seyal, which is widely used in the food industry. Sudan is the main producer of gum arabic in the world.

Olibanum (Boswellia papyrifera), myrrh (Commiphora myrrha) and opopanax (Commiphora sp.) are other important exudates. Olibanum and myrrh are used in an unprocessed form for fragrance and flavour purposes. Sudan and Ethiopia are the most important providers of olibanum to the world market, while Somalia is the world biggest exporter of myrrh and opopanax resins.

Medicinal plants are also an important NWFP in East Africa and are both used for personal and commercial purposes. The utilization of medicinal plants is an important component of the national health care system. In Ethiopia, for example, more than 600 plant species are used directly as medicinal plants by traditional healers, as well as by the population. In total, more than 80 percent of Ethiopians and Tanzanians use medicinal plants and the same percentage can be assumed for the other East African countries.

The most important medicinal plants used in the traditional medicine can be found on local and national markets. International trade in medicinal plants is limited to selected plant species required to produce medicines. Important East African medicinal plants, which are gathered from wild sources and commercialised on the world market, include Prunus africana (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda) and Warburgia salutaris (Uganda, Tanzania).

Bee products are of major importance in Ethiopia, Tanzania and Uganda. Ethiopia is one of the five biggest wax producing countries.

Ecological aspects

The most important habitats for the exploitation of NWFP in East Africa are the woodlands. All species providing exudates, such as Acacia senegal, Boswellia sp. and Commiphora sp., are derived from woodlands located in the arid and semi-arid lands. Closed forests are in general limited to the western parts of East Africa and the highlands. Important NWFP of the lowland forests are bushmeat, bee products and medicinal plants. Warburgia salutaris is derived from the miombo woodlands and Prunus africana is obtained from the mountain forests.

Most of the NWFP are exploited from natural stands. Some species, such as Acacia senegal, are also produced in plantations. Prunus africana is principally derived from wild resources; however, efforts have been made recently to establish Prunus africana plantations and to integrate the species into agroforestry systems. Intensive cultivation systems already exist for introduced species in Africa, such as Bixa orellana, Chrysantemum sp. and Cinchona sp., that can also be considered as agricultural cash crops.

NWFP for which over-exploitation is documented include Prunus africana, Warburgia salutaris, Acacia farnesiana (Tanzania), Xylopia aethiopica (Tanzania) and Podocarpus sp., the bark of which is mainly used for beehive construction. Bee hunting also contributes to the degradation of forests and woodlands due to the utilization of fire, with its high risk of starting bushfires.

Socio-economic aspects

In East Africa, rural communities depend on NWFP as sources of food, medicines and fodder. Wild fruits, for example, are valued as "buffer food" in periods of famine and food shortage. Most of the honey produced does not enter the markets, but is used for local consumption.

In general, however, most of the products are not only used for subsistence purposes, but also sold in local, regional and national markets. Medicinal plants, for example, can be found in most of the formal and informal markets in East Africa.

The international trade of East African NWFP is documented mainly for gums and resins, medicinal plants, bee products and tannins (extracted from the bark of wattle trees). Gums and resins are especially important sources of income for most rural people in Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia. In Somalia, exudates are the third source of revenue after livestock and bananas. In Ethiopia, the number of seasonal workers engaged in the tapping and grading of olibanum is estimated to be between 20 000 and 30 000 per year. Similar figures can be assumed for gum arabic in Sudan, where smallholder farmers owning "gum orchards" exploit the majority of gum.

Table 9. Production of exudates in East Africa

The total value of NWFP for the East African countries is not known. In Tanzania, the trade value of NWFP in 1988 was estimated to exceed slightly the value of wood products. The same might apply for other East African countries such as Somalia and Sudan.

1.3.3 Insular East Africa

Insular East Africa covers the Indian Ocean islands Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, Mayotte, Réunion and Seychelles.

Seychelles, Comoros and Mauritius are members of the Southern African Development Community (SADC). Mayotte is a territorial collectivity, and Réunion an Overseas Department of France. Madagascar, the biggest country in the sub-region and the world's fourth island, is neither a member of SADEC nor of IGAD.

Most of the sub-regions' forests are upland forests since lowland forests have been cleared, mainly for agricultural purposes. On the small islands, national forest cover varies between four percent (Comoros) and 28 percent (Mauritius). The isolation of the islands caused the evolution of unique vegetation formations such as Lodoicea maldivica (Coco-de-Mer palm in Seychelles) or Pandanus thickets in Réunion. In Madagascar, 23 percent of the surface is covered with rainforests in the East Coast and dry forests in the south and western parts of the country. Madagascar is particularly well know for its high rate of endemic species.

Main NWFP

Information on the socio-economic importance of NWFP and the ecological impact of its use in this insular sub-region is scarce. No information is currently available on the use of NWFP in Réunion and Mayotte. On the contrary, good information on NWFP is available for Madagascar.

Taking into account the limited amount of information available, NWFP used in Insular East Africa include edible plants, ornamental plants, forage, aromatics, bamboo, Christmas trees, tools and construction material, living animals, bee products and bushmeat.

Table 10. Main NWFP in Insular East Africa

The most important NWFP of Insular East Africa are supposed to be edible, ornamental and medicinal plants, as well as living animals. However, the utilization of NWFP varies through the islands of the sub-region.

As in other sub-regions, a wide range of edible plants providing food and income is used. Important species include the fruits of Cycas officinalis (Sagou, Comoros), Lodoicea maldivica (Coco de mer, Seychelles) and Coffea vaughanii (Wild coffee). In addition, a wide range of spices such as cinnamon (Cinnamomum aromaticum) in the Seychelles, and vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) in Madagascar, Comoros and Réunion or the Malagasy clove (Syzygium aromaticum) are produced in the sub-region. However, these products are considered as agricultural products rather than NWFP.

Important ornamental plants are Trochetia boutoniana in Mauritius and Cyathea sp. (fern tree), Ficus sp., various orchids and aquatic plants (e.g. Aponogeton sp.) in Madagascar. Figures for Madagascar estimate the value of 276 000 ornamental plants, exported annually, to be US$100 000. 40 percent of the export value of Malgasy ornamental plants is derived from orchids.

Medicinal plants seem to be important NWFP in most of the countries. In Madagascar, exportation of medicinal plants is documented for Drosera madagascariensensis, Centella asiatica, Catharanthus roseus, Eugenia sp. Harongana madagascariensis, Hazunta sp. Medemia nobilis, Voacanga thouarsii, Satrana madinika, Moringa sp. and Prunus africana.

Living animals exploited in the sub-region and sold on the world market include butterflies, reptiles, birds, insects and primates. Especially lemurs (Lemuridae spp.), which are endemic to the sub-region (Comoros and Madagascar), are valuable products, although their trade is forbidden by annex one of the the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).

Ecological aspects

Most of the edible plants and medicines used in the sub-region are wild species, which are collected inside (e.g. orchids, Prunus africana) and outside the forest (e.g. various medicinal plants). Some wild growing medicinal plants are currently being incorporated in agricultural systems (e.g. Prunus africana in agroforestry systems). Most of the spices are already cultivated (in and outside the forest) and are therefore mainly considered as agricultural products.

The risk of over-exploitation of NWFP is obvious for species listed on annex one and two of CITES including Prunus africana (Madagascar), Cycas thouarsii, Cyathea kirki (Comoros) and various orchids. In particular, regarding orchids, it is not known to which extent these species are wild growing forest species or cultivated ones. Animals protected by CITES include reptiles (e.g. Phesulma spp. and Camaeleo cephalolepsis in Comoros), birds, frogs (Mantella spp. in Madagascar) and all lemurs (Lemuridae spp.).

Socio-economic aspects

Little quantitative information is available on the socio-economic importance of the NWFP mentioned above.

As shown in the case of Prunus africana in Madagascar or the exportation of sagou from Comoros to South Africa, collection of and trade in NWFP is an important income generating activity in some areas of the sub-region. However, the use of NWFP for subsistence purposes is of higher significance for the sub-region, rather than the trade in selected species/products.

Export of NWFP is reported mainly for medicinal plants (see above), ornamentals, aromatics, edible plants (and spices) as well as for living animals.

Information on future trends in NWFP use for the sub-region is rare. In Comoros, commercialisation of butterflies and reptiles is an important and probably growing sector. In Madagascar, the value of exported medicinal plants remained stable over the last ten years (worth 57 percent of exported timber products) and is supposed to remain stable in future. In particular, the risk of resource depletion, due to over-exploitation, threatens to reduce the availability, and thus trade, of wild harvested forest species such as Prunus africana. The same risk of reduced trade due to over-exploitation might exist for living animals.

1.3.4 Southern Africa

Angola, Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia and Zimbabwe compose the southern sub-region of Africa, as it is defined in this study.

All of these countries are members of SADC (Southern African Development Community), which, according to the SADC Treaty, aims at coordinating, harmonising and rationalising policies and strategies for sustainable development in all areas of human behaviour. Forestry issues within SADC are dealt with by the SADC Forestry Sector Technical Coordination Unit (FSTCU).

The typical vegetation types in Southern Africa are woodlands. The main woodland type is the Miombo woodland, characterised by species such as Brachystegia. sp., Julbernandia sp. and Pterocarpus sp.. Other important types of woodland are the Mopane woodlands, dominated by Colophospermum mopane, and the Munga woodlands, a Piliostigma-Acacia-Combretum association. Woodlands and other types of forests cover 20 percent of the region, with highest forest cover in Zambia and Malawi (42 percent) and lowest forest cover in Lesotho (one percent) and Swaziland (eight percent). In the arid zones of Southern Africa, bush- and shrubland are dominating. Plantations mainly consist of Eucalyptus sp., Pinus sp. and Acacia mearnsii.

Main NWFP

In Southern Africa, the utilization of food plants, fodder plants, bee products, medicinal plants, bushmeat, exudates, utensils and construction material, dying and tanning materials, insects, ornamentals, aromatics and animal-based medicines is documented. The main NWFP for Southern African countries are listed in Table 11.

Table 11. Main NWFP in Southern Africa

Most important NWFP specific to the sub-region are fodder, edible plants, medicinal plants and bee products.

Fodder is one of the most important NWFP in the region. Its significance is emphasised in Lesotho, Namibia, Swaziland, Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa. Important species providing fodder include Adenium obesum (Swaziland), Colophospermum mopane, (Namibia) as well as Acacia tortilis, Afzelia quanzensis, and Bauhinia thonningii (all in Zimbabwe).

Most important edible plants are fruits, roots, tubers and mushrooms.

In most Southern African countries, fruits contribute significantly to the diet of the people, providing vitamins and minerals. Only in Botswana fruits are not among the most important NWFP. The variety of fruits is enormous; thus no species can be identified as the main one for the entire sub-region.

In Angola, Botswana and Zambia, edible roots and tubers are important NWFP used as food and drinks. In Zambia, due to food shortage in times of heavy rains or droughts, the importance of roots has increased as they are important to food security. In the region, the species on which information exists are Raphionacme burkei (Botswana), Coccinea rehmannii (Botswana), Rhynchosia spp., Satyria siva, Rhynchosia insignis, Colocasia edulis and Dolichos ellipticus (all in Zambia). In Mozambique, roots and tubers are consumed only occasionally.

Mushrooms, which are found in the miombo ecosystem, are collected during the rainy season. They are marketed both in Mozambique and Zambia, while in Namibia they are relevant only for subsistence.

In Southern Africa there exists a variety of medicinal plants. The plants that can be referred to as traded key species are Warburgia salutaris (Mozambique, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, South Africa), Harpagophytum procumbens (Botswana, Namibia) and Harpagophytum zeyheri (Namibia). Apart from these, there is a wide range of medicinal plants that are specific to the respective countries.

Traditional bee keeping is a common practice in Southern Africa in general and in Mozambique, Swaziland, Zambia and Malawi in particular. In these countries, honey and beeswax production as a source of nectar entirely depends on natural forests. Major tree species providing bee fodder include Brachystegia sp. (Zambia and Mozambique), as well as Marquesia macroura, M. acuminata, Syzygium sp. and Julbernardia sp. (Zambia).

Ecological aspects

Within the sub-region, information related to habitat is not complete, though some specifications are made concerning the importance of the miombo woodlands as a source of indigenous fruits (Malawi) and natural forests for honey, beeswax and bamboo (Zambia, South Africa, Swaziland). In Swaziland, the four main species of socio-economic importance (Sclerocarya birrea sub-species caffra, Bequaertiodendron magalismontanum, Syzygium cordatum and Ximenia caffra) are all derived from natural forests and trees outside forests.

Some medicinal plant species are threatened in several parts of Southern Africa (e.g. Mozambique, Zambia, Lesotho, Namibia and South Africa). Increasing demand, large-scale utilization and unsustainable exploitation are the main causes of the over-exploitation of medicinal plants such as Harpagophytum procumbens (Botswana and Namibia), Siphonochilus aethiopicus, Warburgia salutaris, Ledobouria hypoxidoides, Mystacidium millaria, Ocotea bullata and Aloe ferox (South Africa). Another example is the excessive removal of roots and bark in Zambia. Animal based NWFP are also affected. In Lesotho and Malawi, over-hunting affects the supply of living animals and bushmeat.

Socio-economic aspects

Subsistence use of NWFP, particularly the contribution of food plants to household food security and the dependency of rural people on medicinal plants, has already been mentioned. However, NWFP play an equally important role by generating income and employment; women are especially involved in the harvesting and marketing of these products. The main NWFP traded are fruits (Zambia, Swaziland, and Mozambique), medicinal plants (Zambia, South Africa, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Malawi), mushrooms (Zambia, Malawi) and roots and tubers (Mozambique, Zambia). These products are sold both in informal and formal markets.

Information on international trade is available mainly on medicinal plants. Trade principally takes place between neighbouring countries; for example, South African exportation of medicinal plants, such as Synaptolepis kirkii, to Lesotho is documented. Other intra-regional trade exists; for example, from Swaziland to South Africa and Mozambique (e.g. Warburgia salutaris), from Malawi to Zambia (Jateorhiza bukobensis), Zimbabwe, Mozambique and South Africa and from Mozambique to South Africa and Zimbabwe. The only documented trade outside the region is the South African export of medicinal plants (e.g. Panax ginseng, Glycyrhiza sp., Origanum sp., Salvia sp.) to Germany.

Bee products are also traded internationally by South Africa and Zambia, as is Marula oil (Sclerocarya sp.) in Namibia. In addition, there exists an informal trade in baskets from Namibia to South Africa.

The economic value of NWFP at the sub-regional level is impossible to estimate as it is mostly in the informal sector. Nevertheless, some information is available on specific products and their economic contribution. For example, the annual value of NWFP in Namibia is estimated to be N$ 65.3 million (US$12 million).

1.3.5 Central Africa

The Central African sub-region covers the nine countries of Burundi, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Republic of Congo, Rwanda and the islands of Sao Tomé and Principe.

All of them are members of the Economic Community of Central African States (CEEAC, Communaute Economique des Etats de l'Afrique Centrale), based in Gabon, which seeks to promote sub-regional economic cooperation and to establish a common Central African market.¹⁴

Most of the countries are part of the Congo Basin. The mean national forest cover in the sub-region reaches 50 percent: Gabon and Sao Tomé and Principe are countries with the highest forest cover (over 70 percent), whereas forests in Rwanda and Burundi only cover some ten percent of the surface. The Central African forests mainly consist of different types of closed tropical broad-leaved rainforests such as lowland (moist) evergreen, lowland semi-deciduous and (sub-) montane forests. Important species include Etandrophragma cylindricum, Terminalia superba Sideroxylon adolfi-friederici and Aucoumea klaineana. The dryer parts of the sub-region are mainly covered with woodlands, such as the Miombo woodland (Brachystegia sp., Julbernardia sp., Isoberlinia sp.), Acacia woodland (e.g. Acacia siberiana) or the Elfin woodland in Gabon.

Other forest types include littoral and swamp forests as well as mangroves.

Main NWFP

In Central Africa, an enormous variety of NWFP is employed. Animal based products are bushmeat, living animals, trophies, bee products (honey and wax), caterpillars, ornamentals and medicinals. Vegetal products used are edible plants (tubercules, legumes, leaves, bark, fruits, mushrooms, juice, seeds, oils), medicinal plants, forage, rattan, aromatics and cosmetics, colorants, tools (in particular wrapping leaves), construction materials and gums.

Table 12. Main NWFP in Central Africa

The most relevant NWFP in Central Africa are bushmeat, edible plants, medicinal plants, and rattan.

Bushmeat is an important source of protein for the population of the Central African sub-region. Though hunting is legally restricted in most of the countries, there still exists a high demand for bushmeat in both rural and urban areas. Due to the growing urbanisation, trade in bushmeat is increasing as well. Main hunted species include antelopes (mainly duikers), gazelles, monkeys, wild boars, porcupines and crocodiles.

Edible plants are among the main NWFP for each country. They are an extreme heterogeneous group of products, considering the different parts used such as fruits, nuts, bark, leaves, seeds, roots and oils. A multitude of species is used for subsistence, whereas only selected species of main importance are commercialised at the national and international level. Traded edible plants include the fruit of Irvingia gabonensis (Bush mango, mostly used for the extraction of edible oils), Dacryodes edulis (Safou), Cola acuminata (Kola, seeds), Coula edulis, Elaeis guineensis (Oil palm, edible oil), Piper guineesis, Xylopia aethiopica, Aframomum spp. and Gambeya africana the leaves of Gnetum africanum and G. buchholzianum, the tubercoel of Dioscorea sp, the bark of Garcinia sp. and different species of mushrooms. Vitellaria paradoxa (Sheabutter) and Parkia biglobosa (Neré) are important species providing edible fruits and oils in the semi-arid parts of the sub-region.

Traditional medicine is an essential part of the health care system in Central Africa, where synthetic pharmaceutical medicines are not available to most of the population due to high prices and/or lack of supply. A wide range of species is used as medicinal plants: in Cameroon for example, the use of more than 500 medicinal plants is documented. These medicinal plants are used by the population and by specialists - mostly traditional healers. Especially in countries or areas, where traditional knowledge is disappearing (e.g. Equatorial Guinea), medicinal plants are more often used by specialists. In some countries such as Burundi, traditional healers are formally organised and recognised by the government. Species exported to pharmaceutical companies, due to their chemical properties, are Prunus africana (Guinea Equatorial, Cameroon), Pausinystalia johimbe, Voacanga africana, Strophantus gratus and Physostigma venenosum (all exported from Cameroon).

Rattan is a major NWFP of the sub-region and is mostly traded for the fabrication of furniture. The importance of rattan in Central Africa could be documented for Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial Guinea and the Republic of Congo. Relevant commercialised species with the highest economic value are Laccosperma secundiflorum and Eremospatha macrocarpa.

During the "International Expert Workshop on NWFP in Central Africa", held at The Limbe Botanic Garden in Cameroon, in May 1998, 13 key species of high socio-economic value, and for which demand exceeds supply, were identified by the participants (see table 13). Among these key species, priority for action should be given to Gnetum spp., Baillonella toxisperma, Prunus africana, Pausinystalia johimbe and rattan.

Table 13. Key vegetal species providing NWFP in Central Africa¹⁵

Explications: Pr: Primary forest; S: Secondary forest; Pl: Plantation; Fa: Farmland; Fl: Fallow; W: Wild; C: Cultivated, T: Tolerated; *** high; ** medium; * low CMR: Cameroon; CAF: Central African Republic; PRC: Republic of Congo; ZAI: Democratic Republic of Kongo; EQG: Equatorial Guinea; GAB: Gabon

Source: adapted from Wilkie, D. 1999. CARPE and NWFP. In: Sunderland, T.C.H.; Clark, L.E.; Vantomme, P. NWFP of Central Africa: Current research issues and prospects for conservation and development. Rome

Ecological aspects

Most of Central African NWFP are derived from forests. However, non-forested areas such as grasslands and agricultural fields are important sources of NWFP as well. In the Democratic Republic of Congo, for instance, Cola acuminata is planted in cocoa plantations. In the case of medicinal plants, it is reported that, in Sao Tomé and Principe, only one third of the medicinal plants are derived from (mainly secondary) forests. On the contrary, in the Republic of Congo, nearly 70 percent of medicinal plants are collected in forested areas. Clearings (for agriculture and timber extraction), fires, and political instability (i.e. socio-economic crisis in Burundi, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo) are the main causes for the degradation and destruction of forest lands, resulting in a reduced availability of NWFP.

Another threat to the supply of NWFP is the over-exploitation of selected (mainly commercialised) species, brought about by inappropriate harvesting techniques or exceeding the natural supply (see also table 13). In the sub-regional country profiles, over-exploitation has been documented for Elaeis guineensis, Prunus africana, Gnetum africanum, bushmeat and rattan. In Burundi, some fruit trees are used as fuelwood, in Rwanda over-grazing leads to the extinction of fodder plants.

Improved management of these species could be obtained through improved harvesting techniques and/or domestication. Domestication initiatives were recommended for medicinal plants in Burundi. In the Central African Republic, caterpillars/butterflies and their host trees are cultivated, edible plants are introduced in agroforestry systems (e.g. Gnetum buchholzianum under Canarium schweinfurthii) and Acacia senegal plantations are established. In Gabon, the domestication of Gnetum africanum was tried, but then failed.

Socio-economic aspects

In Central Africa, NWFP are important for subsistence purposes. Moreover, they are an additional source of income, supplementing agricultural activities. Locally, as in the case of villages close to the Korup National Park in Cameroon, the use of bushmeat by men and Irvingia gabonensis fruits by women, is also a main source of income.

Export of NWFP is reported for medicinal plants (see above), living animals, edible plants (e.g. mushrooms, Gentum africanum, Garcinia klaineana, Irvingia gabonensis, Dacryodes edulis, Piper guineensis, Rauwolfia vomitora), rattan, bee products, gums and ornamental plants. Main export destinations are Europe, the United States and neighbouring countries. Some products are exported from Central Africa while actually extracted in another country (e.g. gum arabic collected in Sudan and exported from the Central African Republic).

Considerable import of NWFP is documented in Gabon (bark of Garcinia kola and G. lucida; seeds of Irvingia gabonensis) and Equatorial Guinea.

Most of the NWFP are collected in an open access regime. In the Central African Republic, access to exported products is restricted and it was noted that open access systems are being replaced by individual ownership when NWFP become rare.

The issue of adequate benefit-sharing has been raised in the case of Cameroon and the Central African Republic. In Cameroon, the limited benefits local communities gain from the exploitation of Garcinia sp., in comparison with Nigerian communities, is mentioned. For the Central African Republic, it is documented that the price paid by the final consumer is twice as much (leaves of Raphia sp.) to 25 times (Eremospatha sp.) the price paid to the collectors.

Information on future trends in the use of NWFP in the sub-region is scarce. In the Republic of Congo, it is assumed that:

· the use of NWFP in general will be limited due to supply areas which are becoming more and more remote and difficult to access;

· edible products and medicinal plants will remain important NWFP;

· selected commercialised NWFP will remain important (Gnetum spp., Landolphia spp., Raphia oil, rattan). In particular, the rattan industry is considered to be a growing sector;

· construction materials will be replaced with synthetic products.

In Rwanda, constrained honey production is expected due to limited demand and low prices.

1.3.6 West Africa

West Africa encompasses 16 countries Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d'Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Nigeria, Niger, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo and Chad.

All of them, except Chad, are members of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).¹⁶ The objectives of ECOWAS are i) to promote cooperation and integration, leading to the establishment of an economic union in West Africa in order to raise the living standards of its peoples; and ii) to maintain and enhance economic stability, foster relations among Member States and contribute to the progress and development of the African Continent.

The Sahelian countries of Burkina Faso, Chad, Gambia Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Senegal and the island of Cape Verde are also members of the Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS, Comité Permanent Inter - États de Lutte contre la Sécheresse dans le Sahel). The mandate of CILSS is to carry out research on food security and to combat the effects of drought and desertification for a new and balanced environment in this region, which is suffering from recurrent droughts and progressive desertification.

The mean national forest cover in the sub-region reaches nearly 25 percent: Guinea-Bissau has the highest forest cover with more than 82 percent, whereas in Niger forests cover only two percent of the country. Typical of the drier Northern parts of the sub-region are open woodlands. These woodlands can be classified (from the arid North to the humid South) in five different types: i) Sahelian savannah (Key species: Shrubs such as Acacia spp. and Combretum spp.); ii) Sahelian-Sudanian savannah (Acacia seyal, Faidherbia albida, Isoberlinia doka, Tamarindus indica); iii) Sudanian savannah (Anogeissus leiocarpus, Sclerocarya birrea, Parkia biglobosa, Acacia spp. Butyrospermum paradoxum, Isoberlinia spp.); iv) Sudanian-Guinean savannah (Isoberlinia doka, Burkea africana); and v) the semi-deciduous Guinean savannah (Antiaris africana, Chlorophora excelsa, Isoberlinia doka).

Closed forests are mainly located in the Southern humid parts of the sub-region. Closed forests comprise evergreen forests (Uapaca spp., Diospyros spp., Eremospatha spp., Lophira alta, Heriteria utilis) to semi-deciduous forests (Triplochiton scleroxylon, Celtis spp.). Much of the closed forests have been cleared for agriculture and through logging.

Important non-zonal forest formations include mangroves (Rhizophora racemosa, Avicenna africana) in Senegal, Gambia, Guinea-Bissau and Nigeria, gallery forests (Isoberlinia doka, Afzelia africana, Khaya senegalensis) and swamp forests (Uapaca spp., Mitragyna ciliata).

Main NWFP

In West Africa, people use edible plants, medicinal plants, resins, honey and beeswax, bushmeat, rattan, bamboo, ornamentals, forage, gums, tannins, colorants, living animals, insecticides, wrapping leaves, construction materials (e.g. thatch), hides and skin.

Table 14. Main NWFP in West Africa

The most important NWFP of West Africa are edible plants, bushmeat, medicinal plants and forage.

Edible plants are considered important NWFP in all West African countries. In Mali (south of Bamako), for example, it is documented that 54 percent of the NWFP used are edible products.

Foodstuff is mainly provided by fruits, seeds, nuts and kernels. More seldom, leaves, roots and tubers are collected. Edible plants are mainly used for subsistence providing an important additional source of nutrition. However, products of major socio-economic relevance are also found on local, national and international markets. In Nigeria, the price of edible plants is comparable to that of cultivated products, which underlines the high demand and appreciation of these products.

Important edible plants are Vitellaria paradoxa, formerly Butyrospermum parkii, (sheabutter, karité), Parkia biglobosa (néré), and the oil palm Elaeis guineensis.

Sheabutter and néré are mainly found in the semi-arid parts of the sub-region. Vitellaria paradoxa is used for subsistence (sheabutter, soap, candles) and income (kernels, sheabutter). Nigeria is one of the major producers of sheabutter. In Chad, consumption of edible oils derived from karité reaches 4-6 litres per year/person and contributes considerably to the population's provision of food. The fruits of Parkia biglobosa (néré) are also used for subsistence and trade. The flesh of the fruit consists of 60 percent of sugar and forms the basis for the so-called "meat of the poor" (soumbala). Other important species providing foodstuff in the dryer parts of the sub-region are Adansonia gigitata, Tamarindus indica, Bombax costatum, Borassus aethiopium, Balanites aegyptiaca (savonnier), Detarium microcarpum, Ziziphus mauritania (jujube), Sclerocarya birrea, Diospiros mespilliformis (ebenier), Hyphaene thebaica, Faiderherbia albida, Detarium senegalensis and Boscia senegalensis.

The oil palm Elaesis guineensis is most widely exploited in West Africa, especially in the southern humid parts of the sub-region (in particular Ghana and Nigeria). The fruits and kernels are used for the production of edible oils and palm wine. Probably ten percent of the total energy consumed in West Africa is derived from palm oil based products, which are also an important source of vitamin A; in Southeast Nigeria, for example, 90 percent of the population regularly consumes palm oil. Other important edible plants from the humid parts of the sub-region are cola nuts (Cola nitidia, C. acuminata) and bush mango (Irvingia gabonensis). In Guinea, consumption of cola nuts reaches 150 - 200 million per year; the same amount is exported from Guinea to Mali and Senegal. In Nigeria, the consumption of bush mango reaches 3 - 14 kg/year/household while the total national demand is supposed to be 78 800t. Cola nuts are reported to be traded from the humid south to the arid north in Nigeria.

Bushmeat is another important source of food in general (and of proteins in particular) for the West African population, especially in the humid zones of the sub-region. Important edible animals are warthogs, bush pigs, antelopes (especially duikers), lizards, grass-cutters, rats, porcupines, monkeys, birds, porcupines, rats antelopes, bush-bucks and monkeys.

In the rural areas of Ghana, approximately 75 percent of the population consumes wild animals on a regular basis. Comparable figures are available from Southern Nigeria, where 80 percent of the population consumes bushmeat, providing 20 percent of the animal protein requirements. In Liberia, bushmeat contributes 60-90 percent to the provision of animal proteins. In Guinea, bushmeat consumption reaches 2 kg/person/year in urban and 4.4 kg in rural areas. In Burkina Faso, the population consumes 1 kg of bushmeat per year, national trade is supposed to reach US$ 880 000 to 2.4 million. The high demand and appreciation of bushmeat is highlighted by the fact that in Nigeria, for example, bushmeat is more expensive than products derived from domesticated animals.

The traditional application of medicinal plants is of high socio-economic importance in most West African countries. In Burkina Faso, Niger, and Ghana, more than 80 percent of the population uses medicinal plants. In Nigeria, over 90 percent of the rural and over 40 percent of the urban population depend on traditional medicine. Medicinal plants are used by the population itself and by traditional healers. The importance of traditional medicine is also highlighted by the number of traditional healers as opposed to that of western-trained medical doctors: In Ghana (Kwahu District) and Nigeria (Benin City), the ratio of medical doctors to traditional healers is estimated to be 1:92 and 1:149, respectively. Traditional healers are already officially recognized in countries like Nigeria and Ghana, where 3 360 healers are officially registered, and in Burkina Faso, where some 300 traditional healers, allegedly, work.

In the humid parts of West Africa, chewsticks derived from Garzinia afzelii and G. epundata in Ghana and Nigeria and Lophira lanceolata in Guinea (national consumption: 100 million pieces/year) are relevant medicinal plants.

The use of fodder plants is of particular importance in the semi-arid and arid parts of the sub-region, where production of cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, and camels is a major activity. Main fodder plants include Acacia spp., Prosopis juliflora, Khaya senegalensis, Faidherbia albida, Balanites aegyptiaca, Commiphora africana, Pterocarpus erinaceus and Afzellia senegalensis.

Especially during the dry season, forage provides an important additional fodder supply. During this season, tree forage contributes to 25 percent of fodder supply for ruminants in Niger, in Nigerian savannah areas (which hosts more than 90 percent of Nigerian livestock), forage contributes to 10-15 percent to livestock food.

Ecological aspects

NWFP are derived from forested and non-forested areas. Many NWFP are in fact provided by wild species growing outside the forest. In Benin, most of the edible NWFP are collected in agricultural fields and fallow rather than inside the forest. Bushmeat extraction in Nigeria is more intense in savannahs than in forests, while bushmeat is hunted in rainforests rather than in deciduous forests.

Most of the species providing NWFP are wild. In Nigeria, most of the on-farm trees (some 60 percent) are not planted, but wild and protected resources are left in the fields due to their ecological and economic value and functions. Others, such as the Moringa oleifera in Gambia, are exotic and planted species. Plantations exist for important species such as cashew (Anacardium occidentale) in Senegal and A. nilotica, recently established in Ghana for the production of tannins.

In many countries of the sub-region, the availability of NWFP is decreasing, mainly owing to droughts, population pressure and migration, the expansion of agricultural fields, fires and the over-exploitation of natural resources.

Frequent droughts have reduced the distribution of Bombax costatum in Niger. Currently, in Chad, frequent fires are causing for the degradation of Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa and Balanites aegyptiaca stands, while in Gambia, bush fires are often caused by people collecting honey.

Over-exploitation is reported for a wide range of products:

· Bushmeat is becoming increasingly scarce in countries like Ghana and Gambia. In Liberia, commercial hunting leads to extinction of many endemic species;

· The utilization of preferred fodder plants such as Afzelia africana, Khaya senegalensis and Daniellia oliveri currently exceeds sustainable supply in Nigeria;

· Sheabutter nuts are over-collected in Chad because of the high concurrence of collectors and traders;

· Tapping of gum arabic in Chad is carried out by using destructive harvesting techniques.

Transport and storage creates severe problems for animal and perishable products. In Senegal, the transport of birds designated for export causes high mortality, and in Nigeria, over 25% of the volume of perishable products such as fruits, bushmeat, etc. are lost due to preservation and storage problems.

In the case of sheabutter production in Chad, three major constraints could be identified:

· irregular and insufficient supply;

· inappropriate conservation and harvesting techniques;

· inappropriate stock, transport, transformation.

Finally, supply of NWFP can be reduced by other uses of species providing NWFP. In some countries, high demand for fuelwood affects the supply of NWFP. In Chad, wood Borassus aethiopium is used as construction material, and Khaya senegalensis wood for boat construction. In both cases, the use of wood negatively affects the provision of NWFP.

Socio-economic aspects

NWFP are used for subsistence and income generation. Particularly, in rural and remote areas, the use of NWFP contributes considerably to the livelihood of the people. In Gambia for example, the use of honey as a sweetener provides food and saves money, as it replaces expensive products such as sugar .

The collection of NWFP for commercial purposes is mainly an off-seasonal activity that generates additional income, especially during the "hunger period". In rural areas in Niger, for example, when only few other options exist, NWFP provide 1/3 of the income from non-agricultural activities.

Important exported West African NWFP include sheabutter, gum arabic, cashew and cola nuts, mushrooms, medicinal plants, living animals and bushmeat.

Some of these products are of major importance at the national level: in Guinea-Bissau, the export value of cashew nuts corresponds to 50 percent of the entire forestry sector value. In Senegal, another country with a high potential for cashew production, some 30 percent of taxes derived from the forestry sector originates from trade in NWFP such as exudates, nuts and edible oils.

Table 15. Production of gum arabic in West Africa

The trend in gum arabic production and trade seems to vary. In Mali and Senegal, production of gum arabic is declining, while production is increasing in Chad and Niger.

The importance of NWFP as a main source of income for women has been highlighted in various cases such as:

· trade in bushmeat in Ghana;

· collection and transformation of sheabutter in Burkina Faso;

· collection and trade in fruits in Burkina Faso;

· trade in food products (e.g. leaves, fruits, bulbs), dyes and medicinal plants in Nigeria;

· processing of palm oil (Elaeis guineensis) in Southeast Nigeria.

Most NWFP are collected as common goods with free access and little restrictions. However, for selected (mostly valuable and rare) NWFP, there is a tendency to move from common to private property. In Burkina Faso, for example, wildlife is increasingly considered as private property. In Nigeria, local user rights have been delivered to the local population.

Unclear or changing property rights might raise serious conflicts between stakeholders. In Nigeria, conflicts are reported between hunting in game reserves, on the one hand, and agricultural production, on the other. In Chad, conflicts arose between farmers and nomads with regards to the exploitation of gum arabic. Traditionally, gum tapping has been carried out by pastoralists; however, in view of the increasing prices paid for gum, more and more farmers are becoming interested in collecting it on their own territory. Therefore, new arrangements have to be negotiated between both groups to clarify the property rights over this important resource.

11 WWF. undated. Forest Harvest: An overview of non-timber forest products in the Mediterranean region. by Y. Moussouris & P. Regato, WWF Mediterranean Programme. Rome. In: Internet http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5593e/x5593e00.htm, viewed 14 May 2001.
12 Natural Cork Quality Council. 2000. The Cork Industry. In: Internet http://www.corkqc.com/index.htm", viewed 30/08/2000.
13 Brendel, M. 2000. Muffiger Stopfen. In: Der Spiegel, 17/04/2000. Hamburg
14 The tenth member country of CEEAC, Chad, is included in the West African sub-region.
15 Burundi, Rwanda and Sao Tomé and Principe are not included.
16 Chad is member of the Economic Community of Central African States (CEEAC).