Recently, the FAO, the International Plant Genetic Resource Institute (IPGRI) and the DANIDA Forest Seed Center (DFSC), have been jointly developing of series of guidebooks on forest genetic conservation. This series of three guidebooks attempts to a) provide a thorough overview of principles and approaches to the management of forest tree genetic resource conservation, focusing on in and ex situ conservation, and b) examine and report on examples of genetic conservation, at national, regional and international levels, received from partner institutions throughout the world. It is hoped that these guides, which are based on a combination of recent theoretical and practical knowledge and experiences, will help improve our understanding of the options available for the management of forest genetic resources and further the implementation of conservation action at operational and policy levels.
The second volume of these guides, in a series of three booklets, deals with the conservation of forest (trees and shrub) genetic resources in situ. The English language version of this volume is in press when this note is written (July 2001), and will be published within this year.
An Overview of the In Situ Guide
In recent years, a number of activities around the world have been initiated furthering the management of forest genetic resources in terms of their conservation and sustainable use. Practical experience of these, however, has not been well documented. It was considered important that experiences and observations from these efforts be made more widely available in the form of practical guidelines. Below is a short summary of the in situ guidebook. The summary follows the four main areas of discussion in the booklet.
1. CONSERVATION OF GENETIC RESOURCES IN THEIR NATURAL ENVIRONMENT
Chapter 1 of the in situ guide focuses on introducing the two main approaches of conserving genetic resources in their natural environment, namely: in managed native production forests, and in protected areas.
The majority of tree species will not be conserved ex situ, e.g., in plantations, genebanks, etc., because of overwhelming biological, technical and resource limitations. This highlights the importance of developing sound and feasible in situ conservation methodologies. On the other hand, it is also clear that genetic conservation will not be able to rely solely on conservation in native production forests or protected forest areas. Developing the right combination between in situ and ex situ conservation strategies, including both of the two approaches to in situ conservation mentioned above, is a major challenge in all conservation programs. In situ conservation will usually be a lower-cost option and is likely to be more feasible in the long-term. It is also well known that in situ conservation, in general, has at least the theoretical advantage of conserving the potential for evolutionary processes to be maintained and to continue within defined ecosystem, rather than focus action on a single species in its current state. The specific combinations of in situ and ex situ conservation activities and methods will of course, furthermore, depend upon many biological factors (e.g., species distribution, variation and variation patterns, reproductive biology and ecology) as well as the present and planned future forest uses. Case studies presented clearly demonstrate that long-term conservation of forest genetic resources in situ is complex, and success depends upon appropriate social, economic and political conditions, availability of relevant biological information, adequate resourcing, policy level and staff commitment, and active participation by local communities who should receive tangible benefits from participation.
Since each of the three volumes of the conservation guides has been written as stand-alone documents, while at the same time when considered together attempt to provide a more holistic view of the subject, examples given in volume 2, on in situ conservation, are complemented by others found in Volumes 1 (overview) and 3 (ex situ conservation).
The main factors that favour the inclusion of a particular stand or area in an in situ gene conservation network or reserve system include: 1) an abundance of the species targeted for conservation; 2) secure land tenure; 3) adequately resourced management agencies; 4) support from local people, owners and users of the area; 5) the presence of a forested buffer zone, and; 5) opportunities to conserve other priority species. It is also important to clearly specify programme objectives and activities, timetables and budgets for monitoring and management of the targeted populations, to identify potential risks and hazards (e.g. from wildfire) and to develop contingency plans to deal with such threats, including possible complementary ex situ conservation measures.
General management issues and options for conservation in production forests and in protected areas are discussed in Chapters 2 and 3 of the in situ volume.
2. SELECTION AND MANAGEMENT OF IN SITU CONSERVATION AREAS FOR TARGET SPECIES
This chapter of the in situ guide presents the main steps in planning a programme to conserve forest genetic resources in both managed forests and in protected areas. The suggested steps include:
1. Set priorities among species,Important criteria for selecting conservation areas on the basis of number, size, composition and protection status are also outlined in this chapter. These are summarized below:
2. Determine or infer the genetic structure of the target species,
3. Assess the conservation status of the target species and their populations,
4. Identify specific conservation requirements or priorities at the stand level,
5. Identify the specific populations to be included in the network of conservation stands,
6. Choose conservation strategies and identify conservation measures,
7. Organize and plan specific activities, develop management guidelines
How many conservation areas are required? In many cases relatively few gene conservation populations will suffice for each species, although more areas and populations undoubtedly provide a greater degree of long-term security. In Thailand, for example, a total of 15 conservation stands distributed in 6 genecological zones were considered desirable for teak (Tectona grandis) (Graudal et al. 1999).Finally, each stand will ultimately require its own management plan, each of which will form part of the overall plan to manage and conserve the species’ genetic resources. Such stand-level management plans are best developed through consultative processes involving all concerned parties, notably owners, managers and users of the area, including neighbours, and preferably a forest geneticist contributing to the overall planning and implementation of the programme.How large does each conservation area need to be? As genetic diversity can be continuously eroded in small populations, conservation stands need to be of a minimum size to conserve an appropriate number of genotypes. However, since species can vary drastically in the number of individuals per hectare, the size of each conservation area needs to be specifically considered.
How to select individual populations within each genecological zone? The establishment and demarcation of in situ conservation areas can only be realistically considered if there are responsible and committed landowners or management authorities, an adequate number of individuals of the species targeted for conservation, the level of risk/threats is deemed low, and the selected populations fill critical gaps in the existing or planned network of conservation areas.
3. MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL FORESTS FOR CONSERVATION OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES
In this chapter of the in situ volume, sustainable forest management practices are discussed in relation to the conservation of forest genetic resources, including a discussion on how multiple objectives could be achieved through better forest management programmes. The issues addressed in this chapter are, briefly summarized:
1. What is sustainable forest management and how is it related to the conservation of forest genetic resources? The methods adopted must be appropriate to the physical conditions as well as the socio-economic and institutional context in which they will be implemented. These may differ considerably both within and between countries (FAO 1998). A key objective for genetic conservation within the framework of sustainable forest management action will be the maintenance of viable populations sizes of the main commercial timber species, as well as species which provide wood and non-wood forest products (NWFP) for local communities.Forest restoration and rehabilitation, are also discussed in the in situ guide, noting that there have been increasing efforts to rehabilitate large and growing areas of degraded lands in various parts of the world.2. What silvicultural practices of tree genetic resources are appropriate in different forest types? There are many different management criteria to consider both in regard to boreal and tropical species. Issues, such as, natural regeneration potential, silvicultural requirements, dependency on animals or insects for pollination and dispersal, and many social and economic factors, must be considered and integrated in the overall plan.
3. Can capacity building assist in effective conservation of forest genetic resources in managed production forests? Forestry Departments, communities and those involved in implementation of enabling policy and legal frameworks (e.g. logging and harvesting Codes of Practice, silvicultural prescriptions, and Reduced Impact Logging guidelines), must work and develop plans and strategies together.
4. How might genetic resource considerations be better taken into account in forest management? For example, what are the necessary information needs (e.g. inventory information, including condition, age or size composition of the stand); and, how can logging or harvesting and genetic conservation be made more compatible? This can and should include consideration of parameters such as, intensity, frequency and timing of logging or harvesting, choice of species and individual trees to be cut, retained or harvested for non-wood products, regeneration system following logging, protection and management of regeneration.
5. How can silvicultural operations increase the commercial timber (or NWFP) values of a forest and contribute to the conservation of its genetic resources? Techniques that are discussed in the in situ guide, can be, for example, identification of final harvest trees, release of regeneration from competition, and control and management of fire.
6. How can the impact of forest management on genetic resources be monitored and evaluated in a relatively simple manner? Careful monitoring of forest operations needs to be undertaken to ensure that prescribed management practices are followed and they achieve the desired outcomes. Questions to be addressed include, for instance: What is the species composition and age-class structure, over time? Is genetic variation within and among tree species being maintained at targeted levels?
7. Is management of non-wood forest products (NWFP) important? NWFP include a vast range of products and other necessities. Harvesting of NWFP (e.g. plants or parts of plants for food and medicinal purposes, fungi, fibres, dyes, gums, resins and rubber, bamboos and rattans, animal fodder) can add value to sustainable forest management and support genetic conservation of forest tree genetic resources through the provision of both indirect and direct benefits to people living in or close to the forest (FAO 1993).
4. PROTECTED AREAS AND THEIR ROLE IN THE CONSERVATION OF FOREST GENETIC RESOURCES
Protected areas constitute an important component in the maintenance of biological diversity and genetic resources in situ. The discussion in Chapter 4 of the in situ guide demonstrates that the success of genetic conservation in protected areas is dependent on the following factors:
1. the spatial distribution of protected areas across the natural range of the species targeted for conservation is representative and relevant to the conservation efforts,Existing protected areas, in many countries, may not adequately protect forest genetic resources, because they do not adequately sample targeted species or the needed populations within the species. The management regimes of existing protected areas are frequently also typically designed for the conservation of ecosystems, with less attention to the other levels of variation, as demonstrated in many of the examples in the guide. However, the management of many protected areas can be made compatible with the conservation of forest genetic resources in situ. Below are some of the steps towards this end, which Chapter 4 of the in situ guide considers in more detail:2. the size of the protected areas are adequate and have good design in relation to shape, infrastructure, zoning, boundary features, edge effects, and buffer zones, and,
3. adequate levels of protection exist and management rules and guidelines are likely to be respected by local people.
1. Harmonize protected area management and human needs. Protected area managers are increasingly required to consider ways in which local communities can continue to utilize the resources within protected areas, in ways compatible with their conservation.5. EXPERIENCES AND FUTURE PROSPECTS2. Broaden the range of categories of protected areas. This can be done by extending protected areas beyond the traditional focus on strict protection (e.g., national parks), to include or expand the protected area network to those areas in which people live and use natural resources in a sustainable way.
3. Broaden the number of partners involved in the establishment and management of protected areas, so that the role of national Governments is complemented by the involvement of regional and local governments, indigenous peoples, community groups, NGOs and the private sector.
4. Give more consideration to the conservation of forest genetic resources in the planning, establishment and management of new protected areas.
5. Improve linkages and co-ordination between various Government Departments involved in decisions related to the conservation and management of protected areas and forest genetic resources.
6. Undertake inventories of forest tree species in protected areas. Thorough inventories need to be undertaken of forest tree species present in each protected area and their status over time.
7. Institute effective conservation measures. Develop and enforce legal and other protective and management measures to ensure that utilization of tree genetic resources within protected areas is undertaken in a legal, managed and controlled manner.
8. Actively manage forest genetic resources. Where desirable or necessary to ensure that priority forest genetic resources are not inadvertently lost or degraded., initiate appropriate management regimes both within the protected area and its buffer zones.
9. Restore degraded areas within protected areas and buffer zones. It will be necessary, within the active management program of a protected area, to maintain the integrity of the populations if damaged or degraded.
10. Develop and implement a comprehensive bio-regional conservation plan that includes the establishment of forested corridors to link protected areas with other forested parts of the landscape, where this is in the interest of the species targeted for conservation. This may be desirable in the case of small-protected areas that are at risk of losing their biological integrity when occurring as ‘islands’ of natural vegetation.
11. Establish additional protected areas in managed categories. Once again, this suggests that we should shift emphasis from strictly protected areas to broader, multi-purpose-protected areas, such as managed species reserves and other managed resource areas.
12. Ensure that forest genetic resources within protected areas remain available for scientific investigation and for managed collection of reproductive materials.
13. Identify national and international conservation priorities. Conduct national reviews of protected area systems; propose immediate and longer-term action to strengthen the network of protected areas. Undertake international assessments of present and future protected area needs, provide incentives for establishing private protected areas, and promote international co-operation on protected area management.
14. Ensure the sustainability of protected areas. This might include:
- broadening participation in the design of management of protected areas,
- expanding the management objectives to include the full range of conservation activities (ecosystems, landscapes, species, populations and genetic resources),
- improving management effectiveness and monitoring of protected areas,
- enhancing the ecological and social value of protected areas through land purchase and zoning outside the protected area, and
- identifying, securing and developing new sources of financing for protection and management.
Chapter 5 summarizes several of the important concepts dealt with in the previous chapters. First, the value of a systematic approach to genetic conservation is revisited, as there are many organizational and technical challenges that must be considered and developed in a co-ordinated fashion. Only very rarely should or can conservation of genetic resources of trees and shrubs be the responsibility of a sole or one single organization or Government Department.
Second, the important role of sustainable forest management to provide a framework for conservation efforts is summarized, considering biotic and abiotic threats to forests over the many decades in the lifespan of most tree species. Important considerations include possible rapid climatic change and global warming. Managed forests can and should also help conserve genetic resources that may not be sampled in the network of protected areas. It is emphasised that none of these can ensure conservation of all forest genetic resources, on its own, as there are species and populations that will require special and immediate attention. These will include also many species of no or little current utilitarian value that the forest manager probably will not be able to attend to within the productive forest estate.
Third, although biological knowledge of the species, such as ecology, reproductive biology and population genetics, remain unknown or poorly understood for the majority of tree species, it is not possible to wait for this knowledge to become available before enacting conservation measures. However, there is a definite need to improve our understanding of the species and their ecology, as key biological information can help us to develop better conservation plans. It will also help to identify how species can be better utilized in a more sustainable way.
Fourth, successful integrated use and conservation in almost all cases will require that local people have an interest in the forests under targeted for protection or conservation management. Their rights and needs, and historic use of the resources, should be considered. Conservation planning, therefore, requires a thorough understanding of ”Who are the users of the area,” and ”For what purpose do present users need it?” Conservation without local peoples’ involvement is almost invariably not a viable option in the longer term.
Finally, while volume 2 of the conservation guides primarily focuses on the conservation of genetic resources in their natural habitats, it should be remembered that in situ conservation is generally one component of a broader conservation plan. In some cases, conserving forest trees in situ may be the only method that is socially possible and economically feasible. In many other cases, a combination conservation in situ in protected areas and managed forest reserves can be with advantage combined with conservation ex situ, in research plantations and field experiments, or within breeding programmes, e.g. in clone banks. Technical options regarding ex situ conservation programmes are detailed in Volume 3 of the conservation guides.
Other Initiatives and Publications of Interest to in situ Conservation
Volume 2 of this series of conservation guides reflects the rapidly developing interests around the world in forest tree genetic resource management. As reported in the present issue of Forest Genetic Resources, institutions such as the Danida Forest Seed Centre (DFSC) and the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) have recently published information on this and related subjects.
In addition the Centre for International Forestry Research, CIFOR held a workshop for the System-wide Genetic Resources Programme, SGRP in Bogor, Indonesia, 27-29 June 2000, on genetic resources management in ecosystems with the objective to define key genetic resources issues and their relative importance in natural resource management in the context of the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, IPGRI.
The report of the workshop is now avaiable and can also be found at the CIFOR website: http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdffiles/grme.pdf
These documents complement each other. The main, common goal is to raise awareness at policy, technical and public levels of the importance of genetic resource conservation, and to provide guidance of implementation of conservation action.
REFERENCES
FAO; 1975. Methodology of Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources. Report on a Pilot Study. FO:MISC/75/8. FAO, Rome. (E, F, S) 127 pp.
FAO; 1989. Plant Genetic Resources: their conservation in situ for human use. FORGEN/MISC/87, Forest Resources Division, Forestry Department. Booklet prepared in collaboration with Unesco, UNEP and IUCN. FAO, Rome (E,F,S)
FAO; 1993. Conservation of Genetic Resources in Tropical Forest Management: Principles and Concepts. Based on the work of R.H. Kemp, with scientific review of G. Namkoong and F. Wadsworth. Forestry Paper 107. FAO, Rome. (E,F,S). 105 pp.
FAO (1998). Guidelines for the management of tropical forests. 1. The production of wood. FAO forestry paper No. 135, FAO of the United Nations, Rome. 293 pp.
FAO/IPGRI/DFSC (2001). Forest genetic resources conservation and management: In managed natural forests and protected areas (in situ). Volume 2. IPGRI, Rome. In press
FAO/IPGRI/DFSC (in preparation) Forest genetic resources conservation and management: Overview, concepts and some systematic approaches. Volume 1.
FAO/IPGRI/DFSC (in preparation) Forest genetic resources conservation and management: In plantations and genebanks (ex situ). Volume 3.
