Sharks (Chondrichthyes)

Acknowledgements

Frans Teutscher, FAO

Background

Over time, sharks have been exploited by humans for various purposes, from food to medicine. However, they have often been considered as low-value fish, mainly landed as bycatch of other, more profitable species. Therefore, in the past, the incentive to collect biological, catch and trade data on sharks has been limited.

In terms of their biology, sharks remain largely under-studied animals and their conservation status has not been fully assessed. In commercial terms, data on shark landings are mostly mixed with that of skates, rays and chimaeras; data on shark trade are largely unrepresentative of the true extent of exports^[38].

Over the last twenty years a number of states and the conservation movement in general, have been lobbying to draw increased attention to the overexploitation of shark resources, both as direct targets and as bycatch. As a consequence, the international community has launched several initiatives aimed at the protection of shark resources. The most recent has been the listing of the basking shark Cetorhinus maximus and the whale shark Rhincodon typus in Appendix II to the CITES Convention.

This study aims to provide an overview of shark fisheries in main shark producing and exporting countries from an economic and social point of view. The study has been prepared using, as main reference tools, the FAO Fishstat + data on fish landings and trade, FAO FIDI data on employment in fisheries and relevant publications such as the FAO Technical Papers 378/1-2 (“Case studies of the management of elasmobranch fisheries”, edited by R. Shotton) and 389 (“Shark utilization, marketing and trade”, edited by S. Vannuccini).

An introduction to chondrychthyans

Sharks belong to the class Chondrichthyes (chondrichthyans), which differ from Osteichthyes or bony fish as their skeleton is cartilaginous. The class Chondrichthyes or chondrichthyans is divided into two subclasses: Holocephalii (chimaeras, elephant fish) and Elasmobranchii (Elasmobranchs: sharks and batoids such as skates, rays, torpedoes and sawfish).

The Checklist of Living Elasmobranchs (Compagno 1999) reports 465 shark species, grouped into 35 families. The online Checklist of Living Sharks (http://www.reefquest.com/topics/checklist_res.htm), last revised on 28 March 2002, divides Elasmobranchs into 2 super orders (Galea and Squalea), 10 orders, 44 families, 108 genera and some 480 species.

There is great diversity among sharks. Some species reach their sexual maturity within one year, others may reach it within twenty or twenty-five years. Some species are very short-lived; others may reach up to 60 years. They inhabit a wide range of habitats. The majority of sharks are pelagic species; others reside in freshwater lakes and rivers. A half of all species are found up to a depth of 200 metres, another third inhabits deeper waters to 2 000 metres. Only 5 percent of shark species are truly oceanic (Weber and Fordham 1997).

Very little is known about sharks’ population dynamics, in particular concerning their biology and stock assessment (Vannuccini 1999). According to the document submitted by the Australian government to the Twelfth meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the CITES Convention Conservation and Management of Sharks (CITES 2002c), most shark species are K^[39]-strategist because of their life-history characteristics, including late attainment of sexual maturity, long life span, slow growth and low fecundity. These characteristics would make them susceptible to overfishing.

Shark meat has been consumed and traded since the IV century BC. However, despite the high value of some shark products such as fins, shark has been considered, historically, as a low-value fish. It has been mostly seen as a by-product of other more profitable fisheries, such as those of tuna and billfish. For this reason, the interest in collecting data on sharks has been limited (Vannuccini 1999). Although FAO data may be considered as the most reliable on a global level, production and trade data on chondrichthyans are far from being exhaustive.

According to FAO Fishstat +, 828 364 MT of chondrichthyans were landed in 2000; this figure mostly includes sharks and batoids (especially skates), and a small quantity of chimaeras. However the available data show poor distinction between chondrichthyans, and very limited identification of the species. In addition Fishstat + may not include full data on the quantity of sharks and skates taken as a bycatch, which were estimated at the end of the 1980s at 260 000 to 300 000 tonnes or 11.6-12.7 million fish, mainly blue sharks Prionace glauca (FAO 1998).

The main processed products from sharks include:

- meat, whether fresh, frozen, salted or in brine and smoked;
- fins, to prepare shark-fin soup;
- liver oil, for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals;
- skin, to prepare shark-skin soup, for leather and sandpaper;
- cartilage, ground to powder and used to produce a supposed anti-cancer cure;
- teeth and jaws, in jewellery and sold as curios.

The main commercially-exploited shark species are, according to Vannuccini (1999) and TRAFFIC (Weber and Fordham 1997):

- the silky shark Carcharhinus falciformis;
- the sandbar shark Carcharhinus plumbeus;
- the basking shark Cetorhinus maximus;
- the tope shark Galeorhinus galeus;
- the shortfin mako shark Isurus oxyrinchus;
- the porbeagle Lamna nasus;
- smooth-hounds Mustelus spp.;
- the blue shark Prionace glauca;
- the whale shark Rhincodon typus;
- the small-spotted catshark Scyliorhinus canicula;
- the piked dogfish Squalus acanthias.

Available data show a high anthropogenic pressure on sharks. However, due to the poor level of human knowledge of sharks, it is very difficult to calculate its true extent. Nevertheless, several international initiatives have been launched with the aim to preserve these extraordinary fish:

- The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species includes 79 shark species;

- UNCLOS promotes international cooperation for the conservation and sustainable use of shark species, in particular those listed in its Annex I^[40];

- CMS has the great white shark Carcharodon carcharias and the whale shark listed in its Appendix II^[41];

- FAO launched the IPOA-Sharks in 1999;

- The great white shark is listed in Appendix III to the CITES Convention;

- In November 2002, during CoP 12, proposed by the United Kingdom on behalf of the Member States of the European Union (CITES 2002b), the basking shark was listed in Appendix II to the CITES Convention (CITES 2002d). The whale shark was also listed in Appendix II (CITES 2002d) upon proposal of India, Madagascar and the Philippines (CITES 2002a).

World production of chondrichthyans

According to FAO Fishstat +, world catches of chondrichthyans increased from 271 813 MT in 1950 to 828 364 MT in 2000 (Figure 1 [a]). Figure 1 (b) shows the main species and groups of species landed over time: the vast majority of shark landings is recorded as “sharks, rays, skates, etc. nei” (370 187 MT landed). In 2000, requiem shark landings reached 38 045 MT and piked dogfish landings reached 33 061 MT. However, the former reached their peak in 1996 (52 477 MT landed) and the latter in 1973 (54 150 MT landed) followed by a decline in the following years (Fishstat + data). Table 1 shows landings for the top 20 species in 2000.

Figure 1 (a) and (b): World production of chondrichthyans and production by main species and group of species, 1950-2000.

world production of chondrichthyans, 1950-2000

(b) production of chondrichtyans by main species and groups of species, 1950-2000

Table 1: Top 20 landed chondrichthyan species in 2000 (Fishstat + data).

According to Fishstat + data, the world’s top producers of sharks are Indonesia, Spain, India and Pakistan. Indonesia’s chondrichthyan catch increased from 1 000 MT in 1950 to 111 973 MT in 2000. Spain’s catches were relatively low in the past, averaging some 11 000 MT per year in the whole 1950-1996 period. But in 1997 they increased to 99 320 MT, declining to some 67 000 MT in the following two years and increasing again to 77 269 MT in 2000 (Fishstat + data). India’s catch reached the unprecedented peak of 132 160 MT in 1996, to decrease to an average of some 74 000 MT thereafter. Pakistani shark catch increased from 4 800 MT in 1950 to 74 691 MT in 1979, declining to 18 243 MT in 1983 and recovering in the following years to reach 54 958 MT in 1999 and 51 170 MT in 2000 (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Production of chondrichthyans by main countries, 1950-2000.

The main catch areas are the Western Central Pacific (144 603 MT of landings in 2000), the Eastern Indian Ocean (117 562 MT), the Western Indian Ocean (114 126 MT) and the Northeast Atlantic (103 192 MT). The Northwest Pacific, once the most productive area of the world, declined from 121 700 MT in 1950 to 46 494 MT in 1990 recovering slightly to 57 103 MT in 2000 (Fishstat + data). This downward trend has been mainly due to the decrease in Japanese catch in the area, from 100 700 MT in 1950 to 39 400 in 1964 and fluctuating around similar values since then (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Production of chondrichthyans by main catch areas, 1950-2000.

The main producing countries by area are (Fishstat + figures for 2000):

- In the Western Central Pacific, Indonesia with 88 130 MT landed out of 144 603 in the whole area;

- in the Eastern Indian Ocean, India with 42 264 MT, Sri Lanka 28 014 MT and Indonesia, 23 843 MT;

- in the Western Indian Ocean, Pakistan with 51 170 MT and India with 29 826 MT;

- in the Northeast Atlantic, Spain with 45 908 MT;

- in the Northwest Pacific, Japan with 29 409 MT.

According to the FAO Yearbook on Fishery Commodities (FAO FIDI 2002), the value of world chondrichthyan production was estimated as US$719 million in 1994, 747 million in 1995, 754 million in 1996, 755 million in 1997, 710 million in 1998, 746 million in 1999 and 742 million in 2000.

Chondrichthyans constitute an extremely important fishery resource for developing countries, as shown in Figure 4. Over the past twenty years they have gradually increased their role in terms of food and income generation, due to the increase in demand for shark fins and the decline of landings in traditional species in other areas (Omopariola unpublished). While developed countries’ catch remained relatively stable around an average of some 220 000 MT per year over the entire 1950-2000 period, developing countries’ catches increased from 76 000 MT in 1950 to 575 031 MT in 2000 for a value of US$515 million.

Figure 4: World production of chondrichthyans by economic class of countries, 1950-2000.

Main commercially-exploited shark species

This section looks at a selection of shark species which are at the same time commercially important and (possibly) threatened from a conservation point of view.

Sandbar shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus)

This large, slow-growing, late-maturing and low-fecundity coastal species lives in subtropical marine and brackish waters up to 1 800 m depths, mainly in the Western Atlantic (Massachusetts, United States to Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico) and Eastern Atlantic, from Portugal to the Democratic Republic of Congo, including the Mediterranean. Some scattered records are available for the Indo-Pacific and the Eastern Pacific areas. It feeds on bony fishes, also small sharks, cephalopods, shrimps, rays and gastropods. The sandbar shark is largely utilized for human consumption (meat and fins), leather and oil (Fishbase 2003). This species is overfished and classified as “Lower Risk/near threatened” (LR/nt) by the IUCN Red List 2000, with the exception of the Northwest Atlantic subpopulation which has been classified as “Lower Risk/conservation dependent (LR/cd)” due to the management scheme the United States have been implementing since 1993 (IUCN SSC 2000). Fishstat + contains very limited data on sandbar shark catch from the United States.

Basking shark (Cethorhinus maximus)

The second largest shark in the world after the whale shark, this impressive animal may reach 900 to 980 cm length and 4 000 kg in weight. A cosmopolitan, highly migratory species, it is found mainly in the temperate shallow waters of the Western Atlantic (Newfoundland, Canada to Florida, United States; southern Brazil to Argentina), Eastern Atlantic (Iceland, Norway and western Barents Sea to the Mediterranean and Senegal; also western Cape Province, South Africa), Western Pacific (Japan to New Zealand) and Eastern Pacific (Gulf of Alaska to Chile). It mainly feeds by filtering copepods, barnacles, decapods’ larvae, and fish eggs from the water (Fishbase 2003).

The basking shark^[42] is a large, slowly-maturing, low-resilience species^[43] which is widely distributed but never abundant. These characteristics make it extremely vulnerable to overfishing. As a consequence, local populations of basking sharks have been rapidly declining in the short term due to intensive exploitation. The basking shark is in high demand due to its fins, used to prepare soup, its meat, which is sold fresh, frozen or dried, and its liver, used to produce oil. Very few countries have reported their basking shark catches to Fishstat +. World catch is reported to total 390 MT, according to 2000 figures. The main fishing nation for basking sharks is thought to be Norway, whose catch declined from 18 352 MT in 1975 to 77 MT in 1999 and recovered slightly to 293 MT in 2000 (Fishstat + data).

According to IUCN, the basking shark is a globally “vulnerable” species, while its North Pacific and the Northeast Atlantic sub-populations are considered as “endangered” and are following a declining conservation pattern (IUCN SSC 2000). Several international initiatives have been launched for the conservation of this resource, the latest being the listing of the species in Appendix II to the CITES Convention (CITES 2002d).

Tope shark (Galeorhinus galeus)

The tope, or school shark, is a large houndshark mainly inhabiting the continental and insular shelves of the Western Atlantic (southern Brazil to Argentina), Eastern Atlantic (Iceland to South Africa, including the Mediterranean), Western Indian Ocean (South Africa), Pacific Southwest (Australia and New Zealand), Central Pacific (Hawaii), Eastern Pacific (British Columbia, Canada to southern Baja California and the Gulf of California in Mexico; Peru and Chile). A highly migratory species, the tope shark lives in a depth range of 0 to 1100 m, mainly feeding on fish, crustaceans, cephalopods, worms and echinoderms (Fishbase 2003).

The tope shark is a large, slow-maturing, low-resilience species. It is also a highly commercial one, particularly appreciated for its meat, which is marketed fresh, dried-salted and frozen. Its fins are used for soup and the liver for oil. Its carcass is also used in fishmeal. The high exploitation of this shark is believed to have significantly reduced its stocks over the past 60 to 75 years. The tope shark is classified as “vulnerable” by IUCN in its Red List 2000. As Australia and New Zealand are currently implementing a management plan for this resource, the Australasian population has been assessed by IUCN as “lower risk - conservation dependent” (IUCN SSC 2000).

Available Fishstat + figures for the tope shark indicate that there was a first peak in landings in 1958 (4 300 MT), mainly due to the 4 000 MT harvested by Argentina. The decline experienced in the following years was also due to the decline in Argentine catch. In 1974, landings reached their lowest figure (667 MT). At the same time, New Zealand’s catch had grown from 100 MT in 1950 to 1 100 MT in 1971 and made up 85 percent of the 1974 global landings. It was gradually filling the gap left by Argentina. In 1983, tope shark production reached the record peak of 5 683 MT, driven by landings in New Zealand. Declines in New Zealand and French catches brought the total production back to 2 877 MT in 1992, increasing in the following years to 4 259 MT in 1999 and 3 853 MT in 2000.

The above comments based on Fishstat + shark data apply only to those landings recorded as tope shark: It is possible that the majority of tope sharks caught have been registered within major groupings nei rather than under the entry “tope sharks”. For instance, Fishstat + does not report that tope shark catch in Uruguay varied between 15.6 and 66.2 MT from 1975 to 1979 (Nion in Shotton 1999).

Shortfin mako (Isurus oxyrinchus)

This shark is a cosmopolitan species living in temperate waters from 0 to 740 m. The shortfin mako inhabits the Western Atlantic (Gulf of Maine, United States to southern Brazil, including the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean), the Eastern Atlantic (Norway to South Africa, including the Mediterranean), the Indo-Pacific (East Africa to Hawaii, north to Primorsk Kray in the Russian Federation, south to Australia and New Zealand), and finally Eastern Pacific, south of Aleutian Is. and from southern California, United States to Chile. The shortfin mako feeds on bony fish, other sharks, and even small cetaceans. This shark is also responsible for attacks on humans (Fishbase 2003).

Meat from the shortfin mako is of an excellent quality, it can be utilized fresh, dried/salted, smoked or frozen, and consumed broiled and baked. Its liver oil is extracted to cure vitamin A deficiency and fins are removed to prepare shark-fin soup. Other shortfin mako-derived products include skin, jaws and teeth (Fishbase 2003).

The shortfin mako is a large species with a relatively low reproductive capacity, therefore susceptible to overfishing. However, this shark can count on a relatively fast growth rate and abundant distribution, which may soften the impact of overfishing on the viability of the species. Other than being a target species, the shortfin mako is subject to significant bycatch in tuna and swordfish fisheries. However, most catches are inadequately reported or unrecorded. The shortfin mako has been given the status “lower risk/near threatened” by the IUCN Red List (IUCN SSC 2000).

According to Fishstat +, shortfin mako catch increased from 255 MT in 1985 to 2 084 MT in 2000, peaking at 2 286 MT in 1998. In 2000, main producing countries were Portugal (658 MT), Chile (592 MT), Spain (264 MT) and New Zealand (208 MT). However these figures alone may be under-representative of shortfin mako catches worldwide.

Porbeagle (Lamna nasus)

The porbeagle is common in deep cold and temperate waters of the Western Atlantic (Canada and United States), Eastern Atlantic (Iceland and western Barents Sea to South Africa, including the Mediterranean), Pacific Southwest (Australia and New Zealand), Southeast Pacific (Chile), Antarctic and Southern Indian Ocean. It feeds on small pelagic fish, squids and other sharks. It is regarded as possibly dangerous to humans due to its size (350 cm) and hunting activity, however the recorded episodes of attacks on people and boats are very limited (Fishbase 2003).

An appreciated commercial species, the porbeagle is utilized fresh, dried/salted and frozen for human consumption and often prepared pan-fried or broiled; its fins are used for shark-fin soup. Its liver is used for oil and the carcass may be used for fishmeal. The porbeagle is a wide-ranging species, but it has a very low reproductive capacity (Fishbase 2003). Its global population has been given the “low risk/near threatened status” by IUCN. However, the porbeagle’s Northwest Atlantic sub-population is subject to the United States and Canadian management plans, making this particular stock “low risk/conservation dependent” according to the IUCN classification (IUCN SSC 2000).

World production of porbeagle sharks increased from 3 200 MT in 1950 to 9 674 MT in 1964. In the following years this dropped back to 1950 levels, with the exception of the 4 505 harvested in 1970 and 4 631 MT in 1971. According to 2000 data, production was 3 146 MT. The main producer countries are Spain (1 511 MT), Canada (902 MT) and France (367 MT). Again, these data are estimated to be largely under-representative of actual world catches (Fishstat + data).

Smooth-hounds (Mustelus spp.)

The genus Mustelus groups several shark species, generally of a small size but of high commercial interest, for human consumption, shark oil and fishmeal. Mustelus species featured in the Red List are:

- the gummy shark (Mustelus antarcticus), distributed over the continental shelves of the Eastern Indian Ocean, Pacific Southwest and Western Central Pacific, defined as “lower risk/conservation dependent”;

- the dusky smooth-hound (Mustelus canis), occurring in most of Western Atlantic, defined as “lower risk/near threatened”;

- the rig (Mustelus lenticulatus), which is endemic to New Zealand.

(IUCN SSC 2000)

According to Fishstat +, world production of smooth-hounds Mustelus spp. increased from 2 400 MT in 1950 to 33 611 MT in 1973. It decreased in the following years to 22 519 MT in 2000. The main producing countries were Argentina (7 119 MT), Peru (4 042 MT) and Turkey (2 880 MT).

Blue shark (Prionace glauca)

Prionace glauca is the most widespread shark in the world: it inhabits temperate and subtropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. It is one of the most fecund sharks, becoming sexually mature at 250 cm or 4 to 5 years old and giving birth to 4 to 135 pups per litter. The blue shark is highly overfished, especially as bycatch. Despite the low market value of its meat (which needs to be processed promptly to get rid of the ammonia content) and of its fins, the high quantity of blue shark bycatch in tuna and swordfish fisheries makes up for the low price (Vannuccini 1999). According to Fishstat + data, blue shark catch increased from 4 MT in 1978 to 8 186 MT in 2000, the main producers in the latter year being Portugal (3 083 MT) and Spain (2 803 MT). The quantity of individuals taken as bycatch ranged from 6.2 to 6.5 million fish per year in the late eighties and early nineties (Bonfil 1994).

Whale shark (Rhincodon typus)

The world largest fish, this animal is a cosmopolitan, highly migratory species, mainly occurring in warm waters. It may be found in the Western Atlantic (New York, United States through the Caribbean to central Brazil), in the Eastern Atlantic (from Senegal to the Gulf of Guinea), in the Indian Ocean (throughout the region, including the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf), in the Western Pacific (Japan to Australia and Hawaii), and in the Eastern Pacific (California, United States to Chile). The life history of this species is poorly understood. Catches have declined and populations apparently been depleted by harpoon fisheries in several countries targeting localised concentrations, and there is incidental capture in other fisheries. Targeted fisheries, high value in international trade (mainly due to its liver oil, fins, meat and cartilage), a K-selected life history, highly migratory nature, and low abundance make this species vulnerable to exploitation. Thus the whale shark has been classified as “vulnerable” in the Red List (IUCN SSC 2000) and listed in Appendix II to the CITES Convention on proposal by India, Madagascar and the Philippines (CITES 2002d). Currently, Taiwan Province of China is implementing the world’s first whale shark harvest and trade monitoring system (Chen and Phipps 2002).

Piked dogfish (Squalus acanthias)

The piked dogfish, a small species (160 cm) is possibly the world’s most abundant shark. It can be found in temperate waters of the following areas: Western Atlantic (Greenland to Argentina), Eastern Atlantic (Iceland and Murmansk Coast in Russia to South Africa, including the Mediterranean and Black Seas), Western Pacific (Bering Sea to New Zealand) and Eastern Pacific (Bering Sea to Chile). It is an inshore and offshore dogfish frequenting the continental and insular shelf and upper slopes, usually found near the bottom up to 1460 m, but also in midwater and near the surface. It is often found in enclosed bays and estuaries and reported to enter freshwater, although it cannot survive there for more than a few hours. It feeds on bony fish, molluscs, crustaceans and other invertebrates (Fishbase 2003).

The piked dogfish is largely used for human consumption, to prepare liver oil, vitamins, sand paper, leather, fertilizer. It is generally eaten fried, broiled and baked. Due to its late maturity and low resilience, this fish is considered susceptible to overfishing. The Red List 2000 classifies it as “lower risk/near threatened” (IUCN SSC 2000).

According to Fishstat +, landings of dogfish^[44] (Squalus spp.) increased from 35 945 MT in 1950 to a record 75 864 MT in 1972. They decreased to 51 151 MT in 1980, recovered gradually to 66 710 MT in 1996 then declined again to 46 364 MT in 2000. The main producers are the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada and New Zealand. Recorded piked dogfish landings have been totalling some 70 percent of total dogfish landings over the 1950-2000 period; however, this percentage may be higher as some countries did not identify Squalus acanthias as a specific species and sometimes reported it as “dogfish sharks nei” (see Vannuccini 1999, p. 4 on this issue). Fishstat + also provides some data on trade in dogfish Squalus spp. It shows exports of dogfish Squalus spp. increasing from 2 999 MT in 1976, equivalent to US$3.7 million, to 17 426 MT in 2000, equivalent to US$29.5 million.

Main shark commodities

This section covers the the general market for shark products and in particular the market for shark fins. Shark fins are the most valuable of all shark products and therefore the main source of income for developing countries. Fishtat + data may be under-representative of the real extent of trade in dogfish and other shark products due to limited recording of this trade in many countries.

The commercial exploitation of sharks started after the First World War. The belly flaps of piked dogfish started to be marketed in smoked form in Germany and shark meat was introduced into the “fish and chips” trade in the United Kingdom. Despite its nutritional content and appreciable taste, shark meat was considered a poor person’s food and sharks were mainly caught, in the fifties, for their vitamin A-rich liver oil. However, the waste of up to 75-80 percent of raw material led businesses and countries to improve fishing/processing technologies and marketing/distribution strategies, in order to generate a wider acceptance of shark meat. Since the late fifties a wider acceptance has been achieved due to better handling, the use of ice and freezing, the awareness of widespread malnutrition and thus the need to fully utilize all available protein for human nutrition, the contemporary shortage of bony fish in some areas and the marketing efforts to promote shark meat (Vannuccini 1999).

Shortfin mako shark is considered the world’s best quality shark meat; it is marketed fresh in the United States and in Europe. Other largely appreciated species are thresher (Alopias spp.) and porbeagle. The meat of smaller species like dogfish is also appreciated as it contains smaller amounts of urea and mercury than other species and is also easier to process. The backs of these sharks are are marketed in Europe and Australia as fillets, steaks, portions and used in the “fish and chips” trade. The fresh whole carcasses are marketed in South America as cazon. Other important sharks for the production of meat are requiem sharks (Vannuccini 1999).

Non-food uses of sharks include shark liver oil products, cartilage, skin and teeth. The shark’s liver is saturated with oil to maintain its buoyancy in water. Shark liver oil has been traditionally used as a lubricant in the tanning and textile industry, in cosmetics, skin healing and other health products, as a preservative against marine fouling of wooden boats, as fuel for street lamps and to produce vitamin A, before synthetic vitamin A was discovered. Currently, demand is mainly for squalene, a highly unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbon, present in certain shark liver oils (mainly of the family Squalidae). Squalene is used as a bactericide, organic colouring matter, rubber, chemical, aromatics, in the textile industry, as an additive in pharmaceutical preparations, cosmetics and health foods. A related compound of squalene is squalane, a saturated hydrocarbon obtained by hydrogenation of squalene. Squalane is used in skin care products, as it is a natural emollient (Vannuccini 1999; Kuang in Vannuccini 1999).

Shark cartilage, processed into powder and tablets, is used as a health supplement and alternative cure for several diseases, and beneficial in inhibiting the growth of tumours by impeding the vascularization of malignant tissues (angiogenesis). Cartilage from blue sharks is believed to be of the best quality as it is believed to be richer in chondroitin than other species. Chondroitin is an acid mucopolysaccharide used for various health problems (Vannuccini 1999; Kuang in Vannuccini 1999).

Shark skin is used to produce leather. The market was buoyant until a few years ago, when leather from shark was used to produce handbags, shoes, wallets, cigarette cases, watch straps, coin and key fobs. With the increase in the market for shark meat, shark skin lost its niche. In fact, shark carcasses are sold with the skin intact in order to protect the meat and prevent oxidation. Furthermore, sharks have to be bled, dressed and iced immediately after catch to prevent urea from contaminating the meat, but exposure to fresh water or ice damages the skin. Therefore, nowadays the market for shark leather is limited (Vannuccini 1999; Kuang in Vannuccini 1999).

Other non-food uses of shark include the sale of teeth and jaws in jewellery and as curios, the use of certain shark parts in traditional medicine, aquarium trade, production of fishmeal and glue (Vannuccini 1999; Kuang in Vannuccini 1999).

Exports of shark commodities

World trade in sharks and dogfish increased from 19 908 MT in 1976, for a value of US$34.7 million, to 78 652 MT in 2000, equivalent to some US$269.6 million (Figure 5 [a] and [b]). Main exported products are (Figure 6 [a] and [b]) shark fins in terms of value (US$88.45 million in 2000) and frozen sharks in terms of quantity (37 259 MT in 2000); main exporters are (Figure 7 [a] and [b]) Spain in terms of quantity (16 539 MT exported in 2000) and China in terms of value, with US$55 million worth shark exports (Fishstat + data).

Figure 5 (a) and (b): World exports of sharks and dogfish, 1976-2000.

(a) world exports of sharks and dogfish, quantity 1976-2000

(b) world exports of sharks and dogfish, value 1976-2000

Figure 6 (a) and (b): World exports of sharks and dogfish by main commodities, 1976-2000.

(a) exports of sharks and dogfish by main commodities, quantity 1976-2000

(b) exports of shark and dogfish by main commodities, value 1976-2000

Figure 7 (a) and (b): Exports of sharks and dogfishby main producing countries, 1976-2000.

(a) exports of sharks and dogfish by main producing countries, quantity 1976-2000

(b) exports of sharks and dogfish by main exporting countries, value 1976-2000

The export of shark commodities in 2000 generated revenues of US$134.8 million for developed countries and US$134.7 million for developing countries (Fishstat + data).

Imports of shark commodities

According to Fishstat +, total imports of shark and dogfish commodities increased from 24 228 MT in 1976, equivalent to US$47.6 million, to 76 253 MT in 2000, equivalent to US$182 million. The main importers in volume terms in the year 2000 were Spain, with 13 913 MT, Italy, with 13 708 MT, and China, with 8 599 MT. The main importers in terms of value were China^[45], with US$35.5 million, Italy, with US$ 35 million, and Spain, with US$23.9 million. The main product was frozen shark, (45 839 MT worth US$86.7 million (Fishstat + data)). The lack of cohesion between figures for export and import of shark commodities, especially in terms of value, confirms the shortcomings in data collection in the countries concerned.

Fins

Shark fins are among the most expensive fish products in the world, with prices quoted from US$45 to US$88/kg in the Singapore market (INFOFISH 2003). They are processed and marketed in various ways:

- wet (fresh, chilled and unprocessed);

- dried, complete (with denticles and cartilaginous platelets);

- semi-prepared (with the skin being removed but the fibres still intact);

- fully prepared, frozen, in brine and as fine nets, i.e. with the cartilaginous fin needles being boiled, separated, re-dried and packaged in loose groupings.

(Kreuzer et al. 1978 and Lai Ka-Keong E. 1983).

Shark fins are classified as “black” or “white”. There are no unitary criteria of distinction between black and white. Some traders say that it is a description of the colour of the fin, other that it depends on the depths in which the sharks live. However, it is generally acknowledged that fins of the white group give a higher percentage of fin needles and have a better flavour (Vannuccini 1999).

The world market for shark fins

World trade in shark fins increased from 2 666 MT in 1976, equivalent to some US$13 million, to 5 181 MT in 2000, equivalent to US$116.6 million. Exports peaked, in terms of quantity, in 1996 (6 396 MT), and in value terms in 1997 at US$140.8 million (see Figure 8 [a] and [b]). The relatively low figures for 1998 and 1999 may have been a result of the financial crisis which hit Southeast Asia over that period.

Figure 8 (a) and (b): World exports of shark fins, 1976-2000.

(a) world exports of shark fins, quantity 1976-2000

(b) world exports of shark fins, value 1976-2000

According to Fishstat + the main exporter of shark fins is China, whose exports increased from 1 177 MT, valued at a little less than US$12 million in 1992, to an estimated 2 065 MT, equivalent to US$51.95 million, in 2000 (Figure 9 [a] and [b]). Exports from Indonesia increased from 277 MT in 1976, equivalent to US$177 000, to 1 166 MT in 2000, equivalent to US$13 million. Globally, Yemen reported the second highest income from export of shark fins in 2000, equivalent to US$13.86 million. Other important exporters are Taiwan Province of China, the United States, Japan and Costa Rica.

Figure 9 (a) and (b): Exports of shark fins by major exporting countries, 1976-2000.

(a) exports of shark fins by major exporting countries, quantity 1976-2000

(b) exports of shark fins by major exporting countries, value 1976-2000

As noted earlier the shark fin industry is an important source of foreign currency in many developing countries (Figure 10). In 1976 trade in shark fins generated less than US$6.8 million for developing countries and less than US$6.2 million for developed countries: the situation changed dramatically over time and in 1997 developing countries exports and re-exports of shark fins reached US$126.9 million, compared to just US$13.9 million for developed countries. The figure for developing countries in the year 2000 was US$101.1 million. Over the period 1976-2000 developing countries’ exports of shark fins averaged 76% of world trade in this product, in value terms. In 2000 the main developing country exporters were China, with US$51.95 million, Yemen US$13.86 million (Fishstat + data), and Indonesia with US$13 million.

Figure 10: Exports of shark fins by economic class of countries, value 1976-2000.

In most cases, selling shark fins represent an important income generating activity for fishers themselves. For example tuna fishers in Southeast Asia who take sharks as bycatch from large purse seine operations, process them on board and sell their fins on return to port. The resulting income is then divided between each member of the crew. Due to the high price of shark fins and the tax-free nature of this activity, the individual returns from that activity may be higher than their month salary (Josupeit, Pers. Comm.).

Prices of shark commodities

The price for headed and gutted chilled shark is US$0.50 to 1.25 per pound i.e. circa US$1.10 to 2.75 per kg, at the Honolulu market in the Hawaii (INFOFISH 2003).

Concerning shark fins (Singapore market):

- a full set of oceanic whitetip (Carcharhinus longimanus) fins, half-moon cut, from the South Pacific sells at US$57/kg wholesale;

- a full set of blue shark fins tip, half-moon cut, from the South Pacific, sells at US$47/kg wholesale;

- a full set of mako shark fins tip, half-moon cut, from the South Pacific, sells at US$45/kg wholesale;

- a whole set of white shark fins from Australia sells at US$88/kg wholesale.

(INFOFISH October 2003).

An analysis of main shark exporting countries

This section includes an analysis of the shark fisheries of China, Costa Rica, Indonesia, Japan, Senegal, Spain and Yemen. These countries have been selected on the basis of the importance of their shark fisheries and the income generated by their exports of shark products, taking into account an appropriate regional balance. The main sources used for the preparation of this section have been the UN, FAO, ILO and the World Bank.

China

There are about 110 shark species in China, of which 27 are found in the Yellow and Bohai Seas, 80 in the East China Sea and 94 in the South China Sea. The important target species are the silky shark Carcharhinus falciformis, the spottail shark Carcharhinus sorrah, the spadenose shark Scoliodon laticaudatus, the hardnose shark Carcharhinus macloti, the spinner shark Carcharhinus brevipinna, hammerhead sharks Sphyrna spp., the basking shark Cetorhinus maximus and the whitespotted bambooshark Chiloscyllium plagiosum. The area of Yangjiang is the traditional shark fishing ground, harvesting 1 to 2 000 MT annually (INFOYU in Vannuccini 1999).

In terms of recorded landings, the only possibly relevant figures amount to 378 MT in 1999 and 252 MT in 2000, shortfin mako being the main landed species. However, statistics from the Fujian Provincial Fishery Bureau (INFOYU in Vannuccini 1999) show that catch increased from 4 160 MT in 1990 to 4 608 MT in 1999, and experts quoted by INFOYU estimated that the annual shark catch is between 10 000 and 15 000 MT, 80 percent coming from longline and trawling bycatch and 20 percent from targeted shark fisheries, the latter operated by some 50 boats (INFOYU in Vannuccini 1999).

Shark has been consumed by the Chinese people since ancient times. In ancient China shark was used as a medicine and a nourishing food. Currently, the main processed products from shark are shark fin, dried shark skin, extruded shark skin, shark leather, shark meat and fillets in fresh and frozen form, shark meatballs, dried shark meat floss, shark cartilage powder, shark cartilage chondroitin, shark liver oil, vitamin A and D capsules and dogfish alkene (INFOYU in Vannuccini 1999). Most shark food products provide ingredients for a relatively cheap meal when consumed locally. In contrast, shark fins are exported as a luxury delicacy.

Figures on exports of shark commodities are limited to the 1992-2000 period (Figure 11 [a] and [b]). They mainly cover shark fins. Exports of shark commodities increased from 1 228 MT, for a value of US$ 13.4 million in 1992, to 1 429 MT, corresponding to US$19.4 million in 1994. In 1995 they declined to a mere 83 MT of frozen shark meat, for a value of US$5.5 million. In the following years trade recovered, reaching 2 237 MT, equivalent to US$55 million in 2000 (Fishstat + data).

Figure 11 (a) and (b): Total exports of chondrichthyans from China and exports by main shark commodities, 1992-2000.

(a) total exports or chondrichtyans from China and exports by main shark commodities, quantity 1992-2000

(b) total exports of chondrichtyans from China and export by main shark commodities, value 1992-2000

The shark fishery is a relatively minor activity in China, landing a maximum of 15 000 MT per year (of which 80 percent is bycatch). Target shark fisheries employ some 50 boats (INFOYU in Vannuccini 1999). As the total number of motorized fishing boats in China is 280 000 (INFOYU in Vannuccini 1999) and, according to 2000 data, the total number of Chinese capture fishers corresponds to circa 8.5 million (FAO FIDI data), fishers employed in target shark fisheries may be estimated to total some 1 500. Shark fisheries enjoy a localized importance in the areas of Guangdong and Fujian (representing 80 percent of national shark production).

Despite the relatively small size of the Chinese shark fishery, export of shark commodities generated US$55 million in 2000, equivalent to 1.5 percent of the total value of fish exports for that year with the export value of shark fins alone reaching just under US$52 million (Fishstat + data).

Costa Rica

The main species found in Costa Rica are the silky shark Carcharhinus falciformis, the blue shark Prionace glauca, the bigeye thresher Alopias superciliosus, the oceanic whitetip shark Carcharinus longimanus, the scalloped hammerhead Sphyrna lewini, and the basking shark Cetorhinus maximus (Camhi 1996). Other important species include the nurse shark Ginglymostoma cirratum, smooth-hounds Mustelus spp., the tiger shark Galeocerdo cuvieri, the shortfin mako Isurus oxyrinchus and the bonnethead Sphyrna tiburo (Caro Ros in Vannuccini 1999).

Costa Rica increased its chondrichthyan landings (which are mainly artisanal) from 400 MT in 1970 to 5 453 MT in 2000. According to Fishstat +, these accounted for some 15 percent of the total Costa Rican catch over the period 1970-2000 (Figure 12). According to the Statistics Department of the Instituto Costarricense de Pesca y Acuicultura INCOPESCA, catches of sharks and rays increased from 1 620 MT in 1990 to 3 109 in 1995, to decrease to 1 948 MT in 1996. The main species landed are thought to be smooth-hounds Mustelus spp. (Caro Ros in Vannuccini 1999).

Figure 12: Landings of chondrichthyans in Costa Rica, a comparison with Costa Rican marine landings, 1970-2000.

Costa Rica increased its exports of shark products from 522 MT in 1994 to 3 987 MT in 2000 (Figure 13 [a]). In terms of value this increased from US$11.28 million in 1994 to US$69.1 million in 1998. It then declined to US$8.6 million in 1999, recovering to US$13.1 million in 2000. According to Fishstat +, Costa Rica was the seventh biggest exporter of shark products in 2000 in value terms. The main exported products (see Figure 13 [b]) are whole frozen shark in terms of quantity (2 956 MT) and shark fins in terms of value (US$8.55 million). Exports of shark products are mainly destined to the United States, Canada and Hong Kong (Caro Ros in Vannuccini 1999).

Figure 13 (a) and (b): Total exports of chondrichthyans from Costa Rica and exports by main shark commodities, 1994-2000.

(a) total exports of chondrichthyans from Costa Rica and export by main shark commodities, quantity 1994-2000

(b) total exports of chondrichtyans from Costa Rica and export by main shark commodities, value 1994-2000

The main processed shark product is known as posta de tiburòn, which, according to the terminology used in the country, represents the fish with its head and fins removed. The meat is considered as the most important item, while cartilage and fins are thought to be of lesser importance. Teeth, skin and liver are not utilized on an industrial scale (Caro Ros in Vannuccini 1999). Other sources report that Costa Rica is a major provider of shark cartilage to be processed into “anti-cancer” pills in the United States (Camhi 1996).

Indonesia

The shark fishery in Indonesia is largely artisanal. Sharks and rays are generally caught as bycatch when using set gillnets, longlines and handlines to catch groupers and snappers. These activities occur mostly in shallow water coral reef and coastal environments. Also, several shark species are targeted for their fins. Examples include the white-spotted guitarfish Rhynchobatus djiddensis in the eastern provinces of Maluku and Irian Jaya and carcharinids in Nusa Tenggara and the Timor Sea. Fishers sometimes face long and expensive journeys to catch sharks for their fins; however, the reward can be 100 to 200 kg of fins, worth at least US$6 500 (Bentley 1996).

Bentley reports evidence of a fishery for deep sea shark species, for their liver oil and squalene. Processing companies pay local fishers to catch these in depths of 300 and 1000 metres, but authors are uncertain about the particular species being targeted in this fishery (Bentley 1996).

According to Fishstat + (see Figure 14), total landings of chondrichthyans in Indonesia increased from 1 000 MT in 1950 to 111 973 MT in 2000. Catches are concentrated in the The Western Central Pacific area and provided an average of 85 percent of Indonesian landings over the period 1950-2000 period. This data does not identify the precise species of sharks, skates and rays being concerned, but, according to S. P. Chen (Chen in Vannuccini 1999), the key species are the white-spotted guitarfish, requiem sharks, hammerhead sharks, the tiger shark and the blue shark.

Figure 14: Landings of chondrichthyans in Indonesia, 1950-2000.

In terms of quantity exports of shark products increased from 277MT in1976, to 9 824MT in 1993 and 9 049MT in 1995 (Fishstat + data). But by 2000, they had fallen to 1 313 MT. In terms of value, exports peaked in 1992 with a value of US$23.5 million. In the following years the value declined, down to US$4 million in 1998, but recovering to US$13.3 million in 2000 (see Figure 15 [a] and [b]). Shark fins, dried and unsalted, represent the main export product, making up some 89 percent of shark exports from Indonesia in terms of quantity and 99 percent in value (Fishstat + data).

Figure 15 (a) and (b): Total exports of chondrichthyans from Indonesia and exports by main shark commodities, 1976-2000.

(a) total exports of chondrichtyans from Indonesia and export by main shark commodities, quantity 1976-2000

(b) total exports of chondrichtyans from Indonesia and export by main shark commodities, value 1976-2000

Japan

The main commercial shark species in Japan are the blue shark, the longfin mako shark Isurus paucus, the thresher shark, the salmon shark Lamna ditropis, the shortfin mako, the starspotted smooth-hound Mustelus manazo, the piked dogfish and the Japanese tope shark Hemitriakis japonica (Chen in Vannuccini 1999). Sharks are mainly landed as bycatch, principally in the tuna longline and trawl fisheries (Nakano in Shotton 1999).

As regards the target shark fishery, boats normally use 14 km longlines with some 300 baits. Weaker gears are more likely to be easily destroyed by the animal (National Geographics information). The Japanese shark fishery is a very old and traditional one, involving several ancient rituals. Prior to the catch, the fishers pour sake (a traditional hot alcoholic beverage) on the sea, on the boat and the fishing gears, and drink the remainder to keep their spirits high. Then, fishers beat a wooden pole on the hull as a good luck ritual and to lure the shark. The catch of a hammerhead (Sphyrna spp.) is believed to be a good luck charm from the God of the Sea. The opening of the fishing season is celebrated by a banquet entirely based on shark meat. As families of shark fishers are gradually disappearing, the few that are left are taken in high consideration by the population (National Geographics information).

According to Fishstat + 2000 data, chondrichthyan landings from Japan declined from 100 700 MT in 1950 to 33 072 MT in 2000 (Figure 16).

Figure 16: Total landings of chondrichthyans in Japan and landings by main species and group of species, 1950-2000.

According to Fishstat + data exports of shark products from Japan declined, in terms of quantity, from 5 382 MT in 1976 to 3 818 MT in 2000(Figure 17 [a]) however they increased in value terms from circa US$13 million to circa US$20 million over the same period, peaking at around US$30.86 million in 1992 (Figure 17 [b]). The main exported products were shark fins, frozen shark fillets and frozen sharks

Figure 17 (a) and (b): Total exports of chondrichthyans from Japan and exports of main shark commodities, 1976-2000.

(a) total exports of chondrichthyans from Japan and export by main shark commodities, quantity 1976-2000

(b) total export of shark commodities from Japan and export by main shark commodities, value 1976-2000

Japan is a traditional producer and consumer of many shark products. The meat and cartilage of sharks are used to prepare dishes, the liver oil is used in medicine and the skin is processed into leather. Shark meat is generally marketed fresh or frozen and is consumed boiled or processed as sashimi and surimi paste (Vannuccini 1999). Makos, threshers and requiem sharks (Carcharhinidae spp.) command higher prices in the Japanese market. The mako is considered as the best quality shark; it is marketed frozen, its meat is used for sashimi and the fins are considered of a good quality (Vannuccini 1999).

Fins from Japanese vessels are considered to be of a better quality than those from Korean vessels as Japanese fishers cut differently, to include the meat at the base of the tail. However, the bulk of shark fin production is exported as shark fins are not widely used in Japanese cuisine (Vannuccini 1999).

Senegal

Chondrichthyan landings in Senegal increased from 500 MT in 1961 to 10 757 MT in 2000, the main statistical classification being “sharks, rays, skates, etc. nei”, totalling 5 473 MT and “guitarfishes nei”, totalling 1 930 MT in 2000 (see Figure 18).

Total marine landings in Senegal in 2000 were 379 597 MT (Fishstat + data). Considering that the number of marine fishers in 1997 was estimated at 47 607 (FAO FIDI data) and shark landings amounted to 10 757 MT (Fishstat + data), one can estimate that some 1 350 Senegalese fishers depend on the shark fishery.

Figure 18: Total landings of chondrichthyans in Senegal and landings by main species and groups of species, 1961-2000.

In 2000 Senegal exported 37 MT of shark fins which were worth US$4.3 million (Figure 19 [a] and [b]). Senegal is the 15^th exporter of shark products in the world and the main African exporter in terms of value (Fishstat + data).

Figure 19 (a) and (b): Total exports of chondrichthyans from Senegal and exports by main shark commodities, 1976-2000.

(a) total exports of chondrichthyans from Senegal and export by main commodities, quantity 1976-2000

(b) total exports of chondrichthyans from Senegal and export by main commodities, value 1976-2000

Spain

The main commercial shark species in Spain are the blue shark, smooth-hounds, the tope shark and the shortfin mako. Shark is mostly caught as a bycatch of tuna and swordfish fisheries. The most remunerative shark species is the shortfin mako, even if smooth-hounds and piked dogfish can fetch high prices too. Spanish consumers tend to appreciate both fresh and frozen shark meat, even if the prices for fresh products are higher (Spagnolo in Vannuccini 1999).

According to Fishstat + data for the year 2000, Spain is the world’s second largest producer of sharks after Indonesia. Landings increased from 10 800 MT in 1950, to 77 269 MT in 2000, reaching their lowest in 1977 (149 MT) and peaking at 99 320 MT in 1997 (Figure 20).

Figure 20: Total landings of chondrichthyans in Spain and landings by main species and groups of species, 1950-2000.

Reliable figures on Spanish exports of shark products are limited to the 1992-2000 period (Fishstat + data). Exports of shark products, mainly frozen sharks, increased from 618 MT, equivalent to some US$4.3 million in 1992, to 16 539 MT in 2000, equivalent to some US$42.7 million (Figure 21 [a] and [b]).

Figure 21 (a) and (b): Total exports of chondrichthyans from Spain and export by main shark commodities, 1981-2000.

(a) total exports of chondrichtyans from Spain and export by main shark commodities, quantity 1981-2000

(b) total exports of chondrichtyans from Spain and export by main shark commodities, value 1981-2000

Yemen

Shark has always been a traditional protein supplement in the diet of the populations of the countries bordering the Gulf of Aden, including Yemen. Yemeni shark fisheries are generally artisanal and following the increase in price of shark fins, more fishing effort has been placed on large offshore species whose fins are high demand in international markets (Hariri 2002).

Total Yemeni landings of chondrichthyans, mainly “sharks, rays, skates nei”, increased from 1 000 MT in 1950 to 3 564 MT in 1976 but decreased in the following years to a low of 448 MT in 1984. After a period of stability around relatively low values, they started to increase again from 1991 (2 749 MT landed). In 1993, they hit a peak of 6 537 MT (Fishstat + data). More recently they have fluctuated around an average of 5 450 MT and were estimated at 5 100 MT in 2000 (Figure 22).

Figure 22: Total landings of chondrichthyans in Yemen and landings by main species and group of species, 1950-2000.

Trade data are available for 2000 only, with exports of an estimated 366 MT of shark fins, dried and salted (equivalent to US$13.86 million), 4 MT of frozen sharks (equivalent to US$ 4 000) and 1 MT of frozen shark fillets, equivalent to US$ 2 000 (Fishstat + data).

The Gulf of Oman and the Arab Sea are traditionally important areas for shark fishing (Josupeit, Pers. Comm.). As can be seen Yemen reported some significant figures to Fishstat +. Oman and Somalia are the two other main shark producers in the area. Oman reported landings of 3 891 MT in the year 2000 (with a declining pattern from the 8 313 MT in 1988) but no data on trade. Somalia did not provide any data on landings or trade. These omissions may be due to the absence of reporting of shark bycatch, or by inclusion of sharks within looser groupings, such as “marine fish nei”.

Conclusions

The countries^[46] proposing the listing of Cetorhinus maximus and Rhincodon typus in Appendix II to the CITES Convention were motivated by the high level of utilization of the species, their vulnerability to exploitation and the lack of a global legislative framework for their conservation and sustainable exploitation (CITES 2002a; CITES 2002b). This situation is now common to many chondrichthyan species with 79 of them appearing in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (IUCN SSC 2000).

Biological and population dynamics data on sharks are very limited, therefore the conservation status of shark species is very difficult to assess with a reasonable degree of accuracy. In addition, available catch and trade data, such as those provided by Fishstat +, do not allow for a detailed analysis of patterns of exploitation of shark species.

FAO data and relevant literature may however justify a series of conclusions on the importance of shark fisheries for developing countries, as presented below.

The developing countries’ landings of chondrichthyans climbed from 76 000 MT in 1950 to 575 031 MT in 2000 for an estimated value of US$515 million. According to Fishstat + data, their trade in shark products generated foreign exchange revenues of US$134.7 million in 2000, of which:

- US$55 million to China;
- US$13.86 million to Yemen;
- US$ 13.3 million to Indonesia;
- US$13.1 million to Costa Rica;
- US$4.3 million to Senegal.

Spain and Japan, the only developed countries analysed in this paper, generated revenues of US$42.7 million and circa US$20 million respectively from the export of shark products. Furthermore, world export of shark fins, the most expensive sharked based product, generated export revenues of US$101.1 million to developing countries.

Despite giving a general idea of the increasing importance of shark fisheries worldwide, these socio-economic data and estimates are rather under-representative of the full extent of the sector. This is due to the high volume of unreported shark bycatch which is nevertheless processed and traded both domestically and internationally.

Table 2: Economic and social aspects of the shark fishery in the case countries (2000 data, except when explicitly stated, source FAO, except when explicitly stated).

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