Osman Mohamed Saeed
Animal Resources
Research Corporation, Ministry of Science and Technology,
Sudan
September 2004
INTRODUCTION
The Sudan has an area of 2 505 825 km2 (approximately 8.3 percent of the African Continent) and lies between the geographical coordinates 15 00 N and 30 00 E. This vast country embraces different vegetation patterns reflecting various climatic zones grading from tropical rain forests in the south through semi tropical savannah to arid zone in the extreme north with annual rainfall ranging between 1 600 mm and 25 mm in the same sequence.
Sudan borders nine countries with a total land boundaries of 7 687 km and has a population of 35 079 814 and an annual growth rate of 2.8 according to the year 2000 estimates. Agriculture (including fisheries) dominates Sudan economy contributing 80 percent of the total working force and 42 percent of the GDP. The contribution of fisheries in GDP is currently marginal.
In 1989, Sudan adopted a Federal Government System. Accordingly, an administrative structure of 26 autonomous States was established. The Sudanese coast lies within the Red Sea State. This state has an area of 214 458 km2 of which 55 percent is pastoral grounds, 42 percent is saline and desert areas and 3 percent is cultivable lands. Coastal populations rely mainly on the sea for their food security and income generation in such an area with limited alternatives livelihood opportunities.
Sudan is endowed with diversified surface and under ground water resources and arable lands that are qualified to support to a vigorous capture fisheries and aquaculture. Currently, capture fisheries activities are centered around the River Nile and its tributaries and the territorial waters of Sudan on the Red Sea.
Sudan marine finfish fisheries account for about seven percent of total fish potential of the country (140 000 tonnes/year) and contributes 8.8 percent of the total production (57 000 tonnes).
From its geographical characteristic, the Red Sea is considered as a tropical water course with a prevailing desert and semi-desert climate. The jurisdiction of Sudan on the Red Sea is limited to a coastline of some 750 km and an Exclusive Economic Zone of 91 600 sq. km of which 22 300 km2 constitute the shallow coastal area.
Sudan territorial waters are generally characterized by weak currents, lack of upwelling phenomenon, weak tide (1-2 feet), high water temperature (20 degrees in February and 33 degrees in August), high salinity, (39-45 percent) lack of permanent rivers and freshwater runoff except the freshwater reaching the sea seasonally from Baraka River forming Delta Towker in the south and rain water that influx through valleys and ephemeral khors such as Arbaat in the north and Khor Kilab, Khor Moug, Hoshiery Valley and Khor Nawarat south of Port Sudan. These basic characteristics are believed to have their negative impact on productivity and organic production of the Sudanese sector of the Red Sea. These same territorial waters are rich in intensive coral formations in the inner and outer continental shelf. Although these corals represent attractive feeding localities and refuge areas for coralline fish as well as resorts for tourism activities, they also constitute obstacles to bottom trawl fishing due to their irregular beds.
Mariculture constitutes a potential avenue to augment fish production from capture fisheries for local consumption and export. Emphasis has been historically placed on oyster cultivation targeting production of oyster shells for export as raw material for button manufacturing, cosmetics, medicinal and inlay works. Technologies for oyster cultivation from spat collection to market size stages have been developed and implemented in small-scale oyster family farms adjacent to human settlements in the northern sector of the Sudanese coast. These technologies need to be further disseminated for expansion of this lucrative business along the entire Sudanese coast. Over and above, there are other indigenous finfish and crustacean species that proved elsewhere to be qualified and feasible for cultivation in land- based structures (ponds, pens, and lagoons) or floating cages in the open water. Diversification and intensification of mariculture is a research and development area that accord high priority in government policies for proper resource utilization for food security and socio-economic enhancement.
Sudan Marine Fisheries is small-scale and artisanal in nature, as defined as a labour intensive fisheries that is conducted by artisanal craftsmen whose level of income, mechanical sophistication, quantity of production, fishing range, political influence, market outlets, employment and social mobility and financial dependence keep them subservient to the economic decisions and operating constraints placed upon them by those who buy their production.
As of yet, no industrial and or recreational fisheries have emerged. The limited number of 20 tonnage capacity foreign trawlers that frequent the territorial waters usually operate on seasonal basis mainly targeting shrimps and discarding the by-catch.
The information contained in this review are gathered from various sources including records of the Fisheries Administration and Fisheries Research Centre, FAO Publications, Previous Assignments prepared by the author of these reports to FAO (FAO Fisheries Country Profile; http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles/) and PERSGA (ICZM Plan), National Strategy Documents, local conference papers and personal communication. Detailed supportive specific data and figures pertaining to management of marine fisheries are provided in a completed version of a 53 page FAO Questionnaire.
POLICY FRAMEWORK
Sudan policy, at large, is directed towards achieving international standards in the following areas:
Legal reform to be compatible with international trade and safety agreements and establishment of public sector regulatory bodies.
Economic reform to achieve progressive liberalization and promotion of parastatal commercial enterprises.
Reform in the services sector (e.g. transport, health, education, public awareness, etc.) which build capacity for development.
In 2002, Sudan launched its long-term national strategy entitled the Quarter-Century Strategy (2002-2027) that incorporates fisheries development and rational utilization. With regard to fisheries and aquaculture, the strategy states the following seven guiding objectives:
The role of fish resources in poverty alleviation, food security and welfare of the people.
Rational utilization, conservation and development of fisheries and aquatic resources through sustainable management of production, restocking of depleted resources and pollution control.
Increase of productivity and efficiency of fishers and producers through research, technology development and transfer, training and capacity building.
Development and strengthening of competitiveness of fisheries products through improvement of marketing facilities and quality control.
Investment incentives and privatization.
Participation of stakeholders in management and development processes.
Strengthen databases and documentation.
The policies and implementation and enforcement mechanisms adopted within the strategy to attain these seven objectives include:
Institutional and legislative reforms.
Strengthening of coordination mechanisms between the public and private sectors at the central and state levels within the country.
Establishment and development of fishers and producers organization.
Promotion of fish producers and fisheries investors through stimulating easy-term credit systems.
Harmonization of market access and trade facilitation activities.
Staff recruitment and training.
Allocation of financial resources for fisheries research and development to public institutions.
Establish and maintain professional links and relations with relevant regional and international institutions.
LEGAL FRAMEWORK
The following are examples of direct and indirect legislations related to marine fisheries:
Marine Fisheries Ordinance 1937
This ordinance was launched on 15 June 1937 to regulate the marine fisheries. The ordinance was a very modest administrative and technical guideline reflecting the available knowledge and expertise available at the time. The main rules specified in this ordinance are:
No craft shall be employed for the purpose of fishing in territorial waters unless a valid license, hereinafter referred to as a fishing craft license, shall have been issued under this ordinance in respect of such craft.
No person shall engage in or be employed in fishing in territorial waters unless he is to be a holder of a valid permit hereinafter referred to as a fishing permit, issued under this ordinance for such purpose.
Fishing craft licenses and fishing permit under this ordinance shall be issued by the local authority on payment of the fees set out in Schedule II here to, and unless previously forfeited or otherwise determined shall expire on the 31st day of December next following.
The Governor General may, for the better consideration and development of fisheries, by order published in the Sudan Government Gazette, declare any part of territorial water to be a closed area.
No person shall fish in a closed area otherwise than for the sole purpose of sport unless he has previously obtained the permission in writing of the local authority.
The local authority may grant such permission subject to such terms and conditions as he shall think fit and may refuse such permission at his discretion and without assigning any reason.
Every Police officer, customs officer, or other person duly authorized in that behalf by the local authority may, for purpose of enforcing this ordinance or any regulation made hereunder:
- Board and search any craft found in territorial waters or any craft which he has purpose continuously from territorial water into the high seas and which he, on reasonable grounds, suspects to have been employed for the purpose of fishing in territorial waters; Required any person on board any such engaged in or employed in fishing in territorial waters or whom he, on reasonable grounds, suspects to have been so engaged or employed to exhibit his fishing permit, apparatus and catch.
- Where there is reasonable suspicion in the case of any such craft that on offence has been committed, take the alleged offender, the craft, apparatus, and catch without summons warrant or other process to the nearest or most convenient police station or post. The craft and apparatus may be detained pending trial and the catch may be sold and the proceeds of the sale impounded.
The Court may also order the confiscation of any craft apparatus or catch employed in the commission of, derived from any offence under this ordinance and the cancellation of or suspension for such time as the Court thinks fit or endorsement of the date and nature of the offence on a fishing craft license issued in respect of any such craft or any fishing permit issued to any person guilty of any such offence as aforesaid.
1975 by-law
On 15 April 1975 a by-law was issued by the Minister of Agriculture Food and Natural Resources (where Fisheries at that time was under the ministries mandate) and published as supplement No 1175 (in Arabic) in the Sudan Government Gazette. In this by-law, a slight amendment of the Marine Fisheries Ordinances was made whereby a new item was added dealing with banning use of water guns, fishing of certain fish resources and aquatic pollution. According to this amendment no body is allowed to:
use water guns in fishing without an issued permit;
fishing or collecting corals or molluscs or ornamental fishes without an issued permit;
dumping pollutants in water or coastal area.
It goes without saying that the Marine Fisheries Ordinance (1937) and its By-law are old-dating and demand radical amendment to accommodate recent development in management concepts and procedures and benefit from the international boom of legal and administrative development and initiatives.
Other Legislations
The following are examples of other Sudanese legislations indirectly relating to marine fisheries and environmental management:
Marine Act 1961
Territorial Waters and Continental Shelf Act 1970
General Regulation & Control of Merchant Shipping 1971
Petroleum Act 1998
Regulation for the Protection of the Environment in the Petrol Industries
Environment Protection Law, 2000
Oil Pollution Contingency Plan, 2004
The organs and mechanisms directly involved in fisheries management are the Fisheries Administration, the Fisheries Training Institute (Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries) and the Fisheries Research Centre (Ministry of Science and Technology) according to the mandate of these ministries specified in relative Presidential Decree of their establishment.
According to Sudan federal government system, there are structural arrangement for fisheries administration at the federal and states levels.
The Fisheries Administration within the Ministry of Animal Resources is the central fisheries authority entrusted with planning, policy formulation, training and overall supervision of the fisheries sector. This administration is answerable to the Undersecretary of the Ministry. It is formed of three main divisions: namely Capture fisheries, Aquaculture and Conservation.
At the state level, Fisheries Administration structures are under the umbrella of the Director General of the State Ministry of Agriculture who is answerable to the State Minister of Agriculture. There are currently 12 fisheries administration structures in the states endowed with fisheries resources out of the 26 federal states of Sudan including the Red Sea State.
This current Fisheries Administration discharges its mandatory obligations from its headquarters and associated structures based in Khartoum in close coordination with its Marine Fisheries Department in Port Sudan (Red Sea State) and with other relevant public and private sector institutions and agencies.
The Fisheries Training Institute in Khartoum is one of the specialized training facilities within the Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries. It provides short-term training courses targeting fisheries officers and fishermen from the public and private sectors. Fisheries extension services are coordinated with the Extension Administration within the Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries.
The Fisheries Research Centre, on the other hand, is the main applied research body which is under the umbrella of the Animal Resources Research Corporation, Ministry of Science and Technology. The Fisheries Research Centre HQ is in Khartoum and performs its mandatory functions through a number of specialized Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture Research Stations geographically distributed in strategic fisheries resources localities. The Red Sea Fisheries Research Station of this centre in Port Sudan caters for the marine environment.
Other collaborative institutions and support mechanisms include the following:
Local Universities and Higher Learning Institutions. There are over 26 government universities and 40 private sector universities and colleges in Sudan. Several of these higher learning institutions deliver and offer undergraduate and graduate courses and degrees in fisheries and aquatic environment sciences.
The Fisheries Consultative Council. This council was formed by the Minister of Animal Resources and Fisheries several years ago as a coordinating and advisory structure within the Ministry with representation from the concerned public and private institutions and agencies. The forum benefits from expertise of a wide spectrum representation of eminent university and research institutions staff, planners, extension personnel fisheries societies and trade unions. The council meets at least twice a year and submit to the minister a report of their deliberations and recommendations. The suggestions of the council are usually adopted but are not mandatory binding to the Minister.
The Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources, Ministry of Environment and Physical Development acting as a national focal point for issues, programmes and conventions of environmental concern.
Local and Foreign NGOs e.g. Marine Conservation Society, Sudanese Environmental Conservation Society, OXFAM, ACORD.
Regional and International Organizations e.g. FAO and its subsidiary bodies. UNDP. ODA, IDRC, PERSGA.
Major Stakeholders including fisheries companies and firms, Fisheries Trade Chamber, fishermen unions and cooperatives, and fish and shellfish farmers. Special meetings, workshops and extension programmes are periodically organised and consultative services are rendered to them.
STATUS OF THE FISHERIES
Despite the high biodiversity of aquatic life, exploitation emphasis has been historically placed on harvesting finfish, shrimps and wild molluscs. Both activities are largely of traditional and subsistence nature. The other highly valued resources are either untapped or occasionally fished.
As for finfish, fishing activities are carried out by the artisanal sector using traditional gear, craft and fishing techniques and frequenting near shore areas. Investments in commercial fisheries are limited in magnitude with a tendency to increase in recent years using small and medium-size trawlers and purse seiners. Some firms are engaged in collection and marketing fish through different forms of production relations with local fishermen. Cartilaginous fishes include 30 species of sharks and 21 species of skates and rays. The reported bony fishes amount to 280 species. However, 60-70 percent of the finfish catches are attributed to Epinephallus aerolatus, Lutjanus bohar, L. gibbus, Lethrinus spp., Caranx spp., Plectiopomus maculates, Aprion spp., Scomberomorus commersoni and Mugil spp. Estimates for finfish potential in the Sudanese waters are rather discordant ranging between 6 000 and 35 000 tonnes/year as proposed by stock assessment studies at different times. However, for precautionary approach measures, a fish potential figure of 10 000 tonnes/year is adopted. Of this, the current annual finfish landing did not exceed 5 000 tonnes.
Diving in search of wild molluscs is an old dating occupation for the majority of coastal population. Molluscs of commercial importance include Pinctada margaritifera, Trochus dentatus, Strombus, Lambia, Chicorus, Fasciolaria and Sypraya spp. The first two species contribute to over 90 percent of the wild mollusc collection which is exported to Europe as raw material for button manufacturing, cosmetics and inlay works. Other species such as Strombus Lambia and Tridachnia are also fished for local market as souvenirs or use of the shell and meat as ingredients in poultry feed and local perfume production. The available production statistics that need updating suggest a total annual landing of 500 tonnes of Trochus spp., 30 tonnes of Pinctada spp., 600 pieces of Strombus and 500 kg of Lambia spp.
Crustaceans belonging to the families Penaedae, Palinuridae and Potunidae have been reported in coastal waters. Eight shrimp species have been reported in the coastal waters that are fished by local inhabitants along the coast or by bottom trawling by local and foreign vessels. Of these, Penaeus semisulcatus, Penaeus latisulcantus and Metapenaeus Monocerus contribute the highest population density. Non stock assessment studies have been carried out to quantify these resources. Statistics on shrimp catches are rather discordant suggesting an estimate not exceeding 20 tonnes/year.
The coral reef population in Sudan represent a unique and highly regarded national heritage that deserves utmost attention to preserve. This constitutes a potential asset for tourism industry. The fish resources associated with the coral formations and their vicinity can contribute, apart from food security, in supporting a vigorous ornamental fish industry. There are three types of coral reef in the Sudanese waters including the fringing reef, barrier reefs and atolls. Sanganab atoll. (35 km northeast of Port Sudan) has been declared since 1990 as an internationally recognized Marine National Park. Management of this park is the main responsibility of Environmental and Wildlife Protection Force of the Ministry of Interior. Two other potential marine reserve areas have been surveyed and identified in Makoar Island and Dongonab Bay (approximately176 km north of Port Sudan). Administrative and legal steps pertaining to their official declaration are underway. In these areas the threatened Dugong, Sea Turtles, Sharks, Manta Ray and resident and migratory birds such as Osprey, Goliath, Heron, white-eyed gull, Sandpipers and Crab Plover have been reported.
There are other living marine resources that are either untapped or sporadically fished.
Apart from fragmentary studies on finfish, no stock assessment data and basic information are available for these resources. Much of the research emphasis was placed on oyster biology and culture technologies. Several alternative hanging and bottom culture systems have been evaluated and tested in pilot farms. Based on that, a programme of establishing small oyster family farms was launched with financial support from the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Resources and Irrigation of the Red Sea State, OXFAM and ACCORD.
Seven fishing zones have been recognized and exploited within Sudan Territorial Waters. These are:
Bays, Inlets and "Merssas. These are single channel, bilobate and trilobate water bodies more or less perpendicular to the coast line and extending inland for 1-5 km with water depth ranging between 15 - 100 fathoms. This zone is famous for Sardine and Siganus sp.
Coastal Boat Channels extending for some half a mile from shore with a depth of approximately three fathoms and harbours mullet milk fishes and Lethrinus spp.
The fringing reefs paralleling the coast at a distance of 1-2 miles inwards. Important fishes such as Cranx, Litharinus Plectropomas are fished from this zone
Deep Boat Channel with a depth ranging between 40-200 fathoms and famous for fishing of Aprion and sharks.
Outer Barrier Reefs within the continental edge in which fishes such as Lutjanus bohar, L. gibbus, Variola louti are predominant.
Pelagic zone of over 300 fathoms in depth occupied by Agus, Cranx, Mackerel, Tuna and others.
A limited number of trawlers are used in coastal and offshore fishing. Fishing gear in use include surrounding nets, seine nets, gillnets, cast nets, handline, hook and line and limited number of trawl nets used in seasonal bottom and mid water fishing.
The irregular sea bed confined trawling operations to an area of 71 000 hectares in Delta Toaker (29 500 hectares), Gulf of Agieg (6 500 hectares) Mersa Mogadam (3 000 hectares) Khor Nawarat (2 000 hectares) and other areas.
There are 1 800 registered local fishermen operating 410 fishing crafts including 3-5 meter dugout canoes (Houri), 5-7 meter wooden and steel boats (Felucca) and 7-10 meter lunches (Sambouk). The majority of the Houris is manoeuvred by wooden oars and bamboo staff while the other fishing vessel are fitted with outboard or inboard engines ranging between 10 and 100 horsepower. Over and above, there are some 50 medium size wooden boats and steel trawlers of capacities in the tune of 20 - 25 tonnes each most of them operate on seasonal basis. Trawling is performed by a limited number of small size trawlers in confined areas in southern and northern parts of the Sudanese Red Sea and mainly of seasonal nature targeting shrimps, lizard fish, goat fish and threadfin bream.
Cultivation of the black-lip mother-of-pearl shell, pinctada margaritifera, is the form of mariculture practiced in Sudan. The systems adapted for oyster cultivation are based on off- bottom and bottom culture techniques. Culture operations were geared towards production of oyster shells for export as raw material for button manufacturing, cosmetics and inlay works. The industry is predominantly based on oyster family farms along the Sudanese coast on the Red Sea, as well as large investment in the area of artificial pearl production.
The marine environment and fisheries have been observed to be apparently subject to various hazards and risks that demand high priority attention. Some of these negative impacts are cited below:
Overfishing of and stress on some component of fisheries resources as a consequence of improvement of fishing gears and techniques (e.g. overexploitation of historical locations for wild oyster collection in Dongunab Bay and Mohamed Goal area in the north coast and Suakin Archipelago in the south).
Illegal fishing performed by unlicensed foreign vessel and smuggling of catch.
By-catch and discards of untargeted fish which is thrown back to the water particularly by shrimp trawlers and its negative economic and environmental impacts.
Use of illegal fishing methods (e.g. dynamite) by foreign fishermen or fishing during the breeding season.
Destruction of coral community stands and dredging of fishing grounds in the process of construction of new ports (e.g. Bashayr Petroleum Port, rehabilitation of Suakin Port and Ooseif Port).
Deterioration of coastal environment through cutting of mangroves and blocking of natural water courses from reaching the sea by the fast pace of industrial and economic development.
Oil pollution
MANAGEMENT ACTIVITY
Management measures stem from research recommendations and directives and guidelines of FAO and relevant institutions.
The Fisheries Administration is the mother institution entrusted with implementation of the various aspects of fisheries management in collaboration with public and private sector institutions and agencies. However, contribution of stakeholders in planning and implementation of management programme is currently at a low key profile.
Management is currently focussed on finfish, crustaceans (shrimps, prawns and lobsters) and molluscs. However, most of the management efforts were directed towards finfish. Management capabilities and discharge reflect relative progressive development particularly during the last five years. The reasons behind this progress are increased recognition of the sector and respective political will, human resources capacity building and exchange of expertise with regional and international fisheries agencies and bodies.
Current Fisheries Management Tools and Trends
Management Goal and Objectives as expressed in the Comprehensive National Strategy (1992-2002) called for
Rational utilization and conservation of marine living resources.
Protection of the marine environment from pollution and ecological degradation.
Promotion of investment.
Development of rural communities.
Improve fish distribution and marketing.
Coordinate efforts for integrated coastal management at the national, regional and international levels.
Technical measures in use include:
Regulation of Access: licensing local fishermen and fishing crafts and issuing special permits for foreign vessels subcontracted with Sudanese counterparts. It must be mentioned, however, that the issued licenses to artisanal fishers and craft give them the right to fish throughout the year within the territorial waters (e.g. open access regime). As for the foreign fishing boats, permits are given with clear specification of the fishing zone, season and fisheries resource targeted. No catch quota is conditioned at the moment for both categories.
Mesh Regulation: Standard mesh size of fishing gear is recommended. Check on these is performed during routine inspection and illegal nets are confiscated.
Fish Size Regulation: Minimal allowable size limits for the most important fishes are specified and declared to fishers. Undersized fish are usually confiscated.
Banning of certain fishing methods: The law prohibits the use of dynamite, poisons, and spear guns in fishing.
Increase of Fishermen Capacity: Training, extension, improvement of fishing boats, establishment of boat and engine maintenance workshops, and supply of other services are examples.
Closed Areas: Fishing is completely forbidden in Saganab atoll as a conserved Marine National Park. Dongonab Bay is a closed area for oyster farming and small-scale fishing and wild oyster collection by the local inhabitants.
Closed Season: This is applicable to shrimp grounds where fishing is not allowed during the period mid March to mid August coinciding with the breeding season.
ICZM: Recently (2004), an Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) Plan has been prepared by national experts under the umbrella of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP) of PERSGA. The assignment incorporates two complementary parts: a detailed background coastal profile documents and the proposed ICZM plan of action. This plan is geared towards vertical and horizontal coordination of efforts among various stakeholders in the private and public sectors at the state and federal levels for rational use, conservation and sustainable development of the coastal area. The draft of this ICZM had been discussed in two workshops in Port Sudan (January, 2003) and Khartoum (July 2003). A final workshop is planned to convene in Port Sudan on 6-7 October, 2004 before submission of the ICZM plan to the Cabinet of Ministers and legislative bodies for approval. The ICZM Implementation Programme is planned to start with the following activities:
Capacity building for the ICZM Council and the ICZM Secretariat (provision of basic equipments and training).
Preparation of the Land Use Map and Planning of the Sudanese Coastline;
The establishment of the Public Participation Center for the ICZM as a mechanism for communication and information dissemination to be hosted by an NGO based in Port Sudan.
Establishment of GIS/Remote Sensing/data base center in Port Sudan that should be connected with the main center in Khartoum.
Training and Capacity Building (including the preparation of training kits that consist of trainer manual as well as trainee materials on Environmental Impact Assessment, Tools of ICZM, Public Participation and ICZM, Communication and negotiation skills and other related topics and implementation of training courses).
Conduct socio-economic study to measure the impacts of ICZM on poverty reduction.
Prepare fund raising plan for all other projects suggested.
A coordination unit for ICZM Implementation Programme should be established and provided locally with in kind contribution such as working place and communication tools. PERSGA will cover all the expenses of a part time consultant in addition to part time administrative staff to coordinate all technical and financial issues of the programme.
COSTS AND REVENUES OF FISHERIES MANAGEMENT
As mentioned earlier, several institutions are involved in fisheries management in one way or another. The Fisheries Administration and Fisheries Research Centre are directly involved in fisheries management and perform their responsibilities within the available budget and financial support from the Federal and State Governments and other donors. There is no contribution of magnitude from the private sector apart from fishing permit fees. Public and private universities contribute indirectly through capacity building and basic research.
Due to lack of proper records, it was practically impossible for the author to reach actual figures for the overall budget and exact management costs. The available records of the Fisheries Administration and Fisheries Research Centre indicate a general increase in their budgets during the last ten years for finfish and crustacean management while that for management of wild molluscs fishing remained more or less unchanged. Sources of revenue are limited to license fees, penalties and income tax which is applicable at the moment to fish exporters and importers while traditional craftsmen are exempted from income tax. Generally speaking, estimation of the budget, costs and revenues during the last ten years took into consideration the Inflation factor and devaluation of the Sudanese currency.
IMPLEMENTATION OF GLOBAL FISHERIES MANDATES AND INITIATIVES
As of yet, Sudan did not sign, ratify or accedes the Fish Stock Agreement or the Compliance Agreement. However, informally some of the principles, guidelines, and directives of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing were taken into consideration when preparing the strategic plan of the country.
As mentioned, Sudan had prepared in 2003 the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan in collaboration with PERSGA which when approved will contribute to rational management and sustainable development of the marine fisheries and its environment.
Currently, Sudan participates in the following agreements:
UN Law of the Sea: signed 1982/ratified 1985
Jeddah Convention for the protection of the environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden: signed 1982/ratified 1985
Biodiversity Convention: signed 1992/ratified 1995
CITES Agreement: signed and ratified 1982
PARTICIPATION IN REGIONAL FISHERY BODIES
Sudan participates in the following regional bodies:
FAO/IOTC: Full member, participating in the regular annual meetings of the Scientific Committee and the Commission
FAO/CIFA: Full member
FAO/INFOSAMAK: Attending meetings and communicating information
PERSGA: Participating as national working group members in the implementation of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP)
AOAD: Collaborating in Fisheries Studies and receiving assistance in capacity building (workshops & training programmes)
There are two legal mechanisms in place to implement measures, agreements and technical guidelines adopted by regional fishery bodies.
Mechanism I: Recommendations stemming from regular meetings, technical consultations or involuntary guidelines are brought to the attention of the central government through technical reports with recommendations from the representative(s) who attended the scientific forum. Within the Fisheries Administration (Ministry of Animal Resources and Fisheries) and Fisheries Research Centre (Ministry of Science and Technology), the expertise gained and recommendation reached in these meetings are as far as possible adopted to improve performance. Seminars are usually organized to disseminate information and recommendation of these regional and/or international meetings.
Mechanism II: Agreements and Protocols are usually submitted to the Cabinet of Ministers by the concerned Minister for approval as a prerequisite for subsequent signature, ratification, accession and implementation. The procedures involve several steps:
Evaluation of the proposed document by the concerned Sector Ministerial Committee of the Council of Ministers.
Review of the comments and recommendations of the Sector Ministerial Committee by the Council of Ministers to decide general approval or otherwise.
If approved, submission of the document to the Attorney General Office of the Ministry of Justice for legal opinion.
Submission of the agreement or Protocol to the National Assembly as the highest ranking legislative organ for final approval or enacted by presidential decree in the absence of the National Assembly as the case may be.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Sudan Marine Fisheries is exclusively of artisanal in nature. As of yet, no proper industrial and or recreational fisheries have emerged.
Monitoring, intervention and evaluation as basic functions of fisheries management are rather sporadic and intermittent and handicapped by limited financial resource allocation, inadequate capacity building and poor internal and external coordination.
National Fisheries legislations are old-dating and require considerable reforms and amendments to cope with the recent developments in the international arena.
There is much to be done to improve fisheries management for food security and socio-economic sustainable development.
Evaluation and synthesis of the current situation of Sudan marine capture fisheries and mariculture depict, among others, the following problems and constraints that need to be addressed and resolved:
Very poor resource database as a consequence of insufficient monitoring, surveillance and control infrastructure, allocation of resources and limited qualified personnel, a situation that handicapped proper planning and investment backstopping.
Insufficient infrastructure and institutional capacities.
Weak coordination and cooperation between the concerned research and administration authorities and other stakeholders which is largely motivated by personal attitudes rather than institutional commitment and mechanisms.
The poor organization of fishers and their low socio-economic status has limited their political influence and effective participation in the development process
The remoteness of the fishing areas from the fish landing and marketing sites coupled with rudimentary and insufficient facilities for fish preservation and handling has their negative impact on fish quality.
Extension, training and public awareness programmes are either lacking or poorly attended to.
Fisheries legislations need considerable revision and amendment to cope and match with local constitution and international laws and conventions.
Inadequate access of fisheries research and management personnel to regional and international forums and abroad training that limited their expertise.
Insufficient Credit Schemes for fishermen communities and small scale investors.
Limitation in financial resources allocation and timely payments.
Inadequate extension, transfer of appropriate technologies and innovations and community participation.
Poor implementation of strategy and plan of action for fisheries development and integrated coastal management
Insufficient foreign technical assistance and financial support from donors and relevant institutions and agencies.
REFERENCES
FAO. 2002. Country Profile for Sudan (available at http://www.fao.org/countryprofiles)
PERSGA. Sudan Integrated Coastal Zone Management Plan. http://www.persga.org.
APPENDIX TABLES
Current management of marine capture fisheries in Sudan
Level of |
% Fisheries |
% with Fisheries |
% with Published |
Trends in the number of Managed |
National |
30 |
60 |
50 |
increasing |
Regional |
60 |
40 |
50 |
|
Local |
10 |
0 |
0 |
|
Summary information for three largest fisheries (by volume) in Sudan (2002)
Category of |
Fishery |
Volume |
Value* |
% of Total |
% of Total |
Covered by a |
# of |
# of |
Artisanal |
Finfish |
0.50 |
34.3 |
47.6 |
96.9 |
yes |
1 500 |
410 |
Shrimps |
0.02 |
0.6 |
1.9 |
1.7 |
yes |
200 |
50 |
|
Molluscs |
0.53 |
0.5 |
50.5 |
1.4 |
yes |
100 |
100 |
* Value in 2002 U.S. Dollars.
** % values are based on totals for each category of fishery.
Use of fishery management tools within the three largest fisheries in Sudan
Category of |
Fishery |
Restrictions |
License/ |
Catch |
Rights-based |
Taxes/ |
Performance |
|||
Spatial |
Temporal |
Gear |
Size |
|||||||
Artisanal |
Finfish |
Yes |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
No |
Yes |
No |
Shrimps |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
No |
Yes |
No |
|
Molluscs |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
Costs and funding sources of fisheries management within the three largest fisheries in Sudan
Category of |
Fishery |
Do Management Funding Outlays Cover |
Are Management Funding Sources From |
||||
R&D |
Monitoring & |
Daily |
License fees in |
License fees from |
Resource |
||
Artisanal |
Finfish |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
No |
Shrimps |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
Yes |
No |
No |
|
Molluscs |
Yes |
No |
No |
No |
No |
No |
Compliance and enforcement within the three largest fisheries in Sudan
Category of |
Fishery |
VMS |
On-board |
Random |
Routine |
At-sea |
Other |
Artisanal |
Finfish |
No |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
Market Checks |
Shrimps |
No |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
Yes |
Market Checks |
|
Molluscs |
No |
No |
Yes |
Yes |
No |
Market Checks |
Capacity management within the three largest fisheries in Sudan
Category of |
Fishery |
Does |
Is fleet capacity |
Is CPUE |
Have capacity |
If used, please specify |
Artisanal |
Finfish |
No |
No |
increasing |
No |
- |
Shrimps |
Yes |
Yes |
decreasing |
No |
- |
|
Molluscs |
Yes |
No |
decreasing |
No |
- |