INDIA

INTRODUCTION

Main non-wood forest products

The most important NWFP of India are edible plants, fibres and flosses, bamboos, exudates (gums, resins and oleoresins), medicinal plants, essential oils, tans and dyes, wrapper leaves and animal products (e.g lac and silk).

General information

All usufructs/utility products of plant, animal and mineral origins except timber obtainable from forests or afforested lands are defined as non-timber forest products (NTFP) or non-wood forest products (NWFP) or minor forest products (MFP). Services for tourism and recreation are also considered to be MFP.

NWFP in India are derived from over 3 000 species. According to the Centre of Minor Forest Products, 325 species producing NWFP are very common, commercial and have a base in major industry – they are exported or imported; 879 species are used locally; 677 species are potentially useful only locally; and 1 343 species can be described as "others lesser known".

Nearly 60 percent of all the recorded forest revenue in India comes from NWFP. Most of India's 50 million tribal people receive a substantial proportion of their cash and in-kind income from NWFP (NWFP are estimated to generate 70 percent of all employment in the Indian forestry sector), while about 200 to 300 million village people depend on products from forests to varying degrees (Shiva 1995). The forestry sector, with 23 percent of the country's geographical area, provides 2.3 million person-years of employment. Of this total, 1.6 million person-years are related to NWFP. Most NWFP often provide employment during only part of the year because the processing of NWFP is still poorly developed (Gupta 1994).

Commercial NWFP alone are estimated to generate Rs.3 billion (US$100 million) annually. However, NWFP generate some of the lowest wages of the rural employment sector. While the minimum wage in most states ranges from Rs.30 to 40 per day (US$1 to US$1.30), most NWFP collectors earn from Rs.5 to 15 (US$0.25 to US$0.50) per day. Low wages reflect the low productivity of the forest arising from poor management, and depressed prices imposed by state trading monopolies and private buyers (Poffenberger 1994).

Most of the NWFP are consumed locally (Shiva 1995). There is no quantitative record of the large numbers of NWFP that are collected by forest inhabitants for their local use and for their subsistence economy. Those commodities, which are exported, generally are stocked in Bombay markets. Data with regard to the quantity of NWFP export are available from the Directorate of Commercial Intelligence and Statistics (Calcutta).

India exports a large number of NWFP to other countries after meeting internal requirements. Foreign exchange earnings total about Rs.10 billion (US$384 million) annually (Shiva 1995). NWFP are primarily exported as raw materials (Gupta 1994).

Table 1. Value of NWFP exported from India from 1991 to 1997

Source: Shiva and Pandey (1998)

Table 2. Percentage contribution of different NWFP groups to the total export value of NWFP from 1991 to 1997

Source: Shiva and Pandey (1998)

Property rights have not been well defined until now. The collectors and growers remain ignorant regarding the requirement/demand of any commodity and therefore collection and production are not regulated.

PLANTS AND PLANT PRODUCTS

Food

A number of tree species provide edible plant products. Important fruits come from Buchanania lanzan (chironji, achaar or char), Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut or kaju), Pinus gerardiana (chilgoza or neoza), Emblica officinalis (aonla), Tamarindus indica (tamarind), Aegle marmelos (bel), Feronia elephantum (kaitha), Artocarpus lakoocha (barhal), Syzygium cuminii (jamun), Annona squamosa (custard apple) Carissa opaca (karaunda), Juglans regia (akhrot), Moringa oleifera (drum stick) and Zizyphus jujuba (ber). Edible flowers come from Madhuca indica and M. longifolia (mahua). Roots and tubers of Amorphophalus campanulatum, Dioscorca belophylla, D. oppositifolia and Ipomoea aquatica are also important.

Table 3. NWFP exports from 1991 to 1997

Source: Shiva and Pandey (1998)

Table 4. Export data of some NWFP with a monopoly in world trade

Sources: Shiva et al. (1996) and Shiva and Pandey (1998)

The kernels of Buchanamia lanzan are sold at the market at about Rs12/kg. About 140 tonnes of Pinus gerardiana nuts are produced every year and they are priced at approximately Rs100/kg (Gupta and Sharma 1975). About 86 different oil-seed producing tree species (e.g. Shorea robusta [sal], Madhuca indica [mahua], Mangifera indica [mango], Azadirachta indica [neem], Pongamia glabra [karanj oil], Schleichera trijuga [kusum], Salvadora oleoides [khakan] and Actinidaphne hookeri [pisa]) exist in India. Oil seeds are used, for instance, as substitutes for cocoa butter (sal, mango) and in soap making (sal, mahua, karanj oil, kusum, neem, khakan and pisa).

Table 5. Annual seed production of selected tree species in India

Source: Gupta (1994)

Other important plants that provide oil seeds and fatty oil are (Latin binomials are followed by trade and local terms): Anacardium occidentale (cashew nut tree) – kaju; Aisandra butyracea (butter tree) – phulwara; Aleurites fordii (tung oil tree) – jangali badam; Carthamus tinctorius (saf flower) – kusum; Garcinia indica (kokam) – kokam; Helianthus annuus (sunflower) soorajmukhi; Linum usitatissimum (linseed) tisi or alsi.

Important plants yielding spices are Alpinia glanga (greater galangal), Cinnamomum zeylanicum (cinnamon or dalchini), Curcuma spp. (haldi), Elettaria cardamomum (cardamom, choti elachi), Piper longum (Indian long pepper, pipli), Piper nigrum (black pepper, kali mirch) (Gupta 1994).

Other important plants producing spices and condiments are (Latin binomials are followed by trade and local terms): Apium graveolens (celery seeds) – ajmud; Carum carvi (caraway) – jira; Cassia lignea (tejpat) – tejpat; Cinnamomum cassia (cassia) – cinnamon oil; Crocus sativus (saffron) – kesar; Cuminum cyminum (cumin) – jira; Elettaria cardamomum (cardamom) – choti elachi; Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) – saunf; Garcinia indica (kokam butter tree) – kokam; Guizotia abyssinica (niger) – kala-til; Juniperus communis (juniper) – aaraar; Myristica fragrans (nutmeg tree) – jaiphal; Pimpinella anisum (aniseed) – saunf; Syzygium aromaticum (cloves) – laung; Thymus vulgaris (garden thyme) – thyme.

Fodder

The consumption of fodder was reported to be 229 million tonnes in 1985 (Committee, Government of India). It has been estimated that India needs about 672 million tonnes of fodder to meet its requirements (Jha 1996). Many species have been identified for meeting fodder needs, both in forests and adjoining areas. Overexploitation of forests for fodder may harm other NWFP resources seriously.

Medicines

India's medicinal plant wealth comprises about 1 500 species. Medicinal plants commonly used in pharmaceutical preparations include: Terminalia chebula, T. bellerica, Emblica officinalis (all three yielding myrobalans), Azadirachta indica, Aegle marmelos, Saraca ashoka, Holarrhena antidysetrica, Berberis aristata, Tinospora cordifolia, Adathoda vasica, Ichnocarpus frutescent, Glycyrrhiza glabra, Rauvolfia serpentina, Acorus calamus, Boerhaavia diffusa, Cyperus rotundas, Withania somnifera, Piper longum, Swertia chirayita and Cinchona sp. (Shiva 1995).

Medicinal plant species are coming under threat increasingly; 15–20 percent of the total vascular flora of India may fall under the IUCN categories of threatened, rare or endangered plants. Due to continuous use, many medicinal plant species have become scarce in the forests and efforts are being made to cultivate them (Gupta 1994).

Other important medicinal plants of about 250 commercially important species are (Latin binomials are followed by trade and local terms): Aloe barbadensis (aloe) – girth kumari; Alpinia galanga (galangal) – kulanjan; Atropa belladonna (Indian belladonna) – belladonna; Catharanthus roseus (old maid) – sadabahar; Curcuma zedoaria (zedoary) – kachura; Glycyrrhiza glabra (liquorice) – mulhatti; Plantago psyllium (black psyllium) – kala isabgol; Panax ginseng (Chinese gingery) – gingery; Saussurea lappa (kuth) – pachak; Swertia chirayita (chiretta) – chirayita.

Perfumes and cosmetics

The important essential oils produced in India come from sandalwood, lemon grass, palmarosa, eucalyptus (E. globulus and E. citriodora), khus and linaloe (Gupta 1994). Some commercially important plants that provide essential oils are (Latin binomials are followed by trade and local terms):

Abelmoschus moschatus (ambrette plant) – musk dana; Aquilaria agallocha (agar) – agar; Artemisia pallens (davana) – davana oil; Cananga odorata (ylang ylang) – apurvachampaka; Cymbopogon flexuosus (east Indian lemon grass) – lemon grass; Cymbopogon martini (rosha grass) – gandbel; Cymbopogon winterianus (citronella) – Java citronella grass; Eucalyptus globulus (yields medicinal eucalyptus) – eucalyptus oil; Eucalyptus citriodora (yields perfumery oil) – eucalyptus oil; Jasminum grandiflorum (jasmine) – chameli; Lavandula officinalis (lavender) – lavender; Mentha arvensis (menthol) – peppermint; Mentha piperita (peppermint) – gainthi phudina; Mentha spicata (spearmint) – spearmint oil; Melaleuca leucadendron (cajuput) – kayaputi; Pandanus odoratissimus (screw pine) – keura; Polianthes tuberosa (nutmeg) – anantamul; Santalum album (sandal) – chandan; Syzygium aromaticum (clove) – laung; Vetiveria zizanioides (vetiver) – khus-khus grass; Zingiber officinale (ginger) – adrak.

Table 6. Estimated average annual production of essential oils

Source: Gupta (1994)

Dyeing and tanning

Tannins produced in India can be classified as fruit tannins, bark tannins or leaf tannins. Generally, fruit tannins are obtained from Terminalia chebula (myrobalan or harra), though pods of Acacia nilotica and drupes of Emblica officinalis (myrobalan or aonla) and Zizyphus xylocarpa are used locally. The main tree species yielding bark tannins are Acacia nilotica (babul), A. mollisima (wattle), Cassia auriculata (avaram) and Shorea robusta. The leaves of Anogeissus latifolia and Carissa spinarum are harvested for tannin production.

Around 78 000 to 100 000 tonnes of myrobalan nuts are estimated to be produced annually, valued at Rs15 to 20 million. Over 23 000 tonnes of wattle bark are harvested every year, valued at Rs38 million. About 22 000 tonnes of babul bark are produced annually, valued at Rs55 million. Annual production of avaram bark is estimated at 23 000 tonnes, valued at about Rs35 million (Gupta 1994).

Some other important plants producing tans and dyes are (Latin binomials are followed by trade and local terms): Acacia catechu (cuth) – khair; Indigofera tinctoria (natural indigo) – nil; Lawsonia inermis (henna) – mehandi; Petrocarpus santalinus (red sandalwood) – lal chandan.

Utensils, handicrafts and construction materials

The leaves of Diospyros melanoxylon are used as wrappers for tobacco to produce bidi (tendu, abnus, kendu, tembru, kari, tembhurni and bali tupra). Off-cuts of leaves are burned and the ash is used in toothpowder. Around 300 000 tonnes of bidi leaves are produced annually in India. The value of these leaves is based on an average price of Rs15 000/tonne and the annual value of production is about Rs4 515 million (Gupta 1994).

Over 100 species of bamboo occur naturally in India, the most important being Bambusa arundinacea (thorny bamboo or bans), B. tulda, B. polymorpha, Dendrocalamus strictus (solid bamboo or lathi bans), D. hamil-tonii, Melocanna baccifera and Ochlandra travancorica. Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa arundinacea are the two principal economic species. Bamboo in India is used mainly for pulp (35 percent of total consumption), housing (20 percent), rural uses (20 percent) and fuel (8.5 percent). It is possible that bamboo areas are declining because of gregarious flowering and the consequent dying of clumps. The price of bamboo varies with its end use. Most of the annual cut is used in making paper or rayon, for which producers receive about Rs300/tonne. The value of the potential annual cut is Rs1 367 million (Gupta 1994).

Some other important plants producing bamboos and canes are (Latin binomials are followed by trade and local terms): Arundinaria falcata (fishing rod bamboo) – ringal; Calamus andamanicus (thickcane) – mota bet; Daemonorops kurzianus (east Indian dragon’s blood) – aprang; Melocanna bambusoides (tarai) – tarai bans; Ochlandra travancorica (irul) – irul; Oxytenanthera nigrociliata (kalia) – kalia bans; Phyllostachys spinosa (sheora) – medicinal bamboo; Plectocomia himalayana (basket bamboo) – tokribet.

The following fibre-producing species are used commonly by cottage industries: Agave sisalana (sisal), Abroma augusta, Abutilon spp., Ananas cosmosus, Antiaris toxicaria, Boehmeria nivea (ramie or rhea), Borassus flabillifer, Borassus flabelliformis (palmyra palm or tar), Cannabis sativa (true hemp or bhang), Cordia dichotoma, C. rothii, Giradinia heterophylla, Grewia glabra, G. elastica, G. optiva, Hibiscus spp. (e.g. Hibiscus cannabinus [kenaf or ambari]), Malachra capitata, Marsdenia tenacissima, M. volubilis, Phormium tenax, Sensivieria roxburghiana, Sesbania bispinosa, Sida rhombifolia, Sterculia foetida, S. urens, S. villosa, Themeda arundinacea, Trema orientalis, Typha elephantina, Urena lobata, Oreocnide integrifolia (Gupta 1994).

It is estimated that around 2 500 tonnes per year of agave fibres are produced in the country, with a present value of Rs45 million (Gupta 1994).

Flosses are obtained from certain wild fruits. Important species are Bombax ceiba (silk cotton tree or semul) and Ceiba pentandra (kapok or safed semal). The floss from Bombax ceiba is obtained from capsules and is known as "Indian kapok." The floss is soft and strong and used in life-saving devices for boats, stuffing for cushions, pillows and mattresses, thermal insulation, and soundproof covers and walls. It is a preferred filling material for padded surgical dressings. Flosses obtained from the fruit of Ceiba pentandra (kapok or silk cotton) are elastic and are used in the manufacture of lifebelts and buoys. About 300 tonnes of kapok are produced annually in India, with a value of Rs30 million (Gupta 1994).

Other plants producing fibres and flosses are (Latin binomials are followed by trade and local terms): Agave americana (American aloe) – bans keera; Caryota urens (kittul) – mari; Cocos nucifera (coconut) – nariyal; Corchorus capsularis (white jute) – narcha; Descurainia sophia (flaxweed) – khubklana; Gossypium arboreum (cotton) – kapas; Pandanus odoratissimus (screw pine) – keura; Saccharum munja (munja) – munj.

Grasses are used for paper making (Eulaliopsis binata [sabai grass]), cattle fodder (e.g. Andropogon, Cenchrus ciliaris, Bothriochloa ischaemum, B. intermedia, B. pertusa and Bromus spp.), matting (e.g. Phragmites spp., Arundo spp., Saccharum munja, Typha elephantina and Cyperus corymbosus), ropes (e.g. Eulaliopsis binata, Desmostachya bipinnata, Saccharum munja, S. spontaneum and Themeda arundinacea), thatching (e.g. Imperata cylindrica, Saccharum munja, S. spontaneum and Heteropogon contortus) and in manufacturing furniture, baskets, and screens (e.g. Saccharum munja, Vetiveria zizanioides and Thysanolaena maxima) (Gupta 1994). Some 0.3 to 0.4 million tonnes of grass could be harvested annually in India (Sharma 1977). Some 60 000 to 80 000 tonnes of sabai grass are purchased each year by paper mills. The price of sabai grass is around Rs300/tonne (Gupta 1994).

Exudates

Madhya Pradesh has the potential to produce as much gum karaya (Sterculia urens) as the rest of India combined. However, tapping in the state was banned in 1982 for 10 years. Approximately 1 400 tonnes of gum karaya are collected annually from other states, valued at about Rs60 million (Gupta 1994). No recent production values are available.

Production of gums other than karaya is about 1 900 tonnes, fetching Rs12 million annually. About 46 000 tonnes of oleoresin are obtained from Pinus roxburghii each year, valued at approximately Rs2.8 million (Gupta 1994).

Table 7. Classification of Indian resins and gums

Source: Gupta (1994)