Chapter 7. International trade

7.1 Introduction

In contrast to domestic consumption, which is not well documented, information on international trade is recorded, although there are some limitations in its coverage. Allowing for the inherent deficiencies of trade statistics, useful information on the size and scope of trade in gum benzoin can be obtained.

Before examining specific data four points should be made. First, unofficial trade, benzoin which does not pass through customs points, does not appear in trade statistics. Some Siam benzoin from Lao PDR enters Thailand in this way and the same may be true for some benzoin shipped into China and Viet Nam.

Second, the data are only as good as the customs’ returns allow. If the exporter chooses not to describe his shipment as gum benzoin (or gum benjamin) then it clearly will not be recorded as such and the official returns will underestimate exports. Occasionally, items are misclassified which can result in either inflated or deflated figures. These instances can often be identified by knowing that the origin or destination cited cannot possibly be one relevant to the commodity in question. Use of the misleading term Resin of frankincense in Indonesian trade statistics is a potential pitfall when examining Indonesian exports; it can also result in errors in the statistics of importing countries.

Third, and most important, gum benzoin may not be separated in the trade statistics of the country concerned. If it is a major item, then it is usually recorded, but otherwise it is included with similar commodities under a general heading or a not elsewhere specified heading. This is the case for member countries of the European Union in the Eurostat statistics and for other countries such as Japan, China, Hong Kong, Philippines, South Korea, Bangladesh and Myanmar. In the English version of the Chinese Customs Statistics Yearbook 1995, for example, import data are separated in the gums and resins section for lac, gum arabic, tragacanth, olibanum/myrrh/dragon’s blood, asafoetida and pine resin. Others not elsewhere specified (which for 1995 amounted to 14,700 tonnes) acts as a catch-all for other gums and resins; 38 tonnes under this heading came from Lao PDR.

Lao PDR appears as a country of origin under the Other natural gums and resins heading in Eurostat data. In the case of Thai imports of gums and resins, gum benzoin is separated, but there are two other headings in which benzoin could be included if it were only described in general terms in the documentation: Natural resins, unmodified and Other natural gums and gum-resins. In both cases, imports from Lao PDR are generally the most important (although a major proportion of this is assumed to be damar). Calculation of unit values for imports from Lao PDR under these headings confirmed that a low-value item such as damar predominates in the data.

Fourth, and finally, the statistics do not distinguish between the two types of benzoin, Siam and Sumatra, nor between the different forms in which they are traded (e.g. pure almonds vs semi-processed block benzoin vs extracts and resinoids), and this makes it impossible to quantify accurately the movements of the different types in international trade. Even exports from Indonesia include some very small amounts of Siam benzoin, since it is known that this is imported into Indonesia for extraction and subsequent re-export. The fact that block benzoin is produced in Indonesia, and is included in the export data, makes an analysis of that country’s production particularly difficult, since only a part of the total export figure represents real benzoin (i.e. resin from Styrax spp.).

Despite the above comments, valuable information can be derived from published trade statistics on benzoin and these are discussed following a brief explanation of trading channels.

7.2 Overview of international trade

7.2.1 Trading channels

Although some Sumatra benzoin is exported directly from Indonesia to the final destinations, most is exported to Singapore. Here, the importer either re-exports it without any material change apart from possible re-packaging, sells it on to other Singaporean traders, or subjects it to some form of processing (the products of which are mostly exported). For Siam benzoin, too, not all exports from Lao PDR go direct to the end-user country, and although the quantities involved are much smaller than for the Sumatra type, both Thailand and Singapore are sometimes intermediate destinations for it.

For both types of benzoin, therefore, much is to be gained by examining export statistics for these intermediate destinations, as well as those for the primary producers, where they exist.

Once the benzoin reaches its final destination it is either sold on to other, smaller traders, processed (extracted) by the same company which imports it, or sold on by the importer to other companies who process (extract) it. These companies either use the extract for their own purposes or sell it to other end-users at home or abroad.

7.2.2 Classification of benzoin

In trade statistics, if benzoin is specifically recorded it appears within the gums and resins category of commodities. Most countries use the Harmonised Commodity Description and Coding System (usually known as the Harmonised System) of the Customs Cooperation Council, in which a numbering hierarchy groups commodities according to type, and becomes increasingly more specific as the number of digits increases. A few countries show the SITC number (Standard International Trade Classification, Revision 3) of the United Nations alongside the HS number. The classification numbers and nomenclature used by the countries whose statistics are analyzed below are shown in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1 Gum benzoin - Trade classification and descriptions

7.3 Export data - Primary source countries

7.3.1 Lao PDR

Export data were obtained for Lao PDR but it is impossible to judge their reliability or completeness. Destinations are not specified and it was only possible to obtain a reasonably long time series in terms of volumes exported. Figures for the ten years 1987-1996 are shown in Table 7.2.

Table 7.2 Gum benzoin - Volume of exports from Lao PDR, 1987-1996 (tonnes)

Note: a: Provisional
Source: Statistics Division, Ministry of Commerce, Vientiane

The volumes involved do appear to be in line with rough estimates made by traders and others in Lao PDR.

Limited data were obtained from Lao Customs which include value, as well as volume figures (Table 7.3). It should be noted that the quantities involved are significantly less than the figures in Table 7.2 suggest. The unit values are consistent, although lower than what might have been expected from the prices of the different grades of benzoin as stated by Lao exporters.

Information provided by the Ministry of Commerce, Vientiane, for the first 9 months of 1996, gives the export of benzoin from Vientiane municipality as 17.9 tonnes, valued at US$ 189,738 (equivalent to US$ 10.60/kg).

Table 7.3 Gum benzoin - Volume, value and unit value of exports from Lao PDR, 1993/94-1995/96 ^a (tonnes; 1,000 US$; US$/kg)

Note: a: Statistical year October-September
Source: Customs, Vientiane

7.3.2 Indonesia

Exports of benzoin from Indonesia by destinations, for the period 1987-1995 are shown in Table 7.4 in volume terms and in Table 7.5 in value terms. In an attempt to distinguish different types of benzoin which might be destined for different countries, unit values for each destination were calculated and these are also shown in Table 7.5. Note that from 1996, unfortunately, benzoin is not separated from other unspecified gums and resins in the trade statistics.

The data (Table 7.4) show that annual exports of benzoin in the 9-year period varied between around 800 tonnes and 1,300 tonnes (but block benzoin is included in these figures), with an average of 1,010 tonnes. As indicated above, most (93% on average) is shipped to Singapore. Other, minor, but reasonably regular, destinations include Malaysia, Taiwan, Japan, Switzerland, France and the USA.

Table 7.4 Gum benzoin ^a - Volume of exports from Indonesia by destinations, 1987-1995 ^b (tonnes)

Notes:

a: Apart from occasional, small amounts which are classified as gum benjamin, most is classified as Resin of frankincense.

b: Data for 1996 do not separate resin of frankincense from other, unspecified gums and resins.

-: indicates nil;

~: indicates figures less than 0.5 unit.

Source: Indonesia Foreign Trade Statistics

Table 7.5 Gum benzoin ^a - Value and unit value of exports from Indonesia by destinations, 1987-1995 ^b (1,000 US$; US$/kg)

Notes:

a: See Table 7.4

b: See Table 7.4

c: FOB value recorded in source data in US$

d: Calculated using exact figures for volume and value from source data rather than those rounded to nearest tonne and 1,000 US$

Source: Indonesia Foreign Trade Statistics

Annual exports have been valued at 1-1.6 million US$ (Table 7.5) but it is more instructive to look at unit values. Exports to Europe and the United States are significantly more valuable in value terms than those to Singapore, Malaysia and Taiwan. There are occasionally what appear to be abnormally high or low unit values. These may or may not be genuine but more significance is given here to the consistency of the values for a particular country, and their relative comparison with other countries, than to their absolute magnitude. Based on known usage, the higher grades go for fragrance, flavour and pharmaceutical uses, while the lower grades are destined, on the whole, for incense purposes. Therefore small but higher value quantities of benzoin extract are included in the statistics. A leading Indonesian producer and world-wide exporter of benzoin extract was an information source. Customers for these extracts include the multinational flavour and fragrance companies, who undertake compounding and sell the formulated products to the end-users, which include their own overseas branches and subsidiaries. This accounts for the appearance of benzoin in the statistics of Switzerland, for example. Since 1990, Spain has been a regular destination for high value benzoin (or its extracts) but the intended end-use, or user, is not known.

Indonesian trade statistics give a breakdown of exports according to port of exportation and the data for benzoin are shown in Table 7.6 for the period 1988-1995.

Belawan, the port of Medan, is seen to be the principal port of export, accounting for 91-98% of exports between 1988 and 1993. However, its share has dropped significantly in the mid 1990s: to 72% in 1994 and 60% in 1995. The balance of trade in 1994-1995 has been taken largely by Batu Ampar, which is understood to be a newly developed port on Batam Island, just south of Singapore.

7.4 Import data - Secondary source countries

Before discussing exports from secondary source countries, their imports of benzoin are examined to see how well they match up with recorded exports from the primary producers. In the case of Thailand, it is of interest to see what is officially recorded as entering the country from Lao PDR, and in the case of Singapore, to see how well Indonesian export data correlate with Singapore’s imports from Indonesia and whether other sources are recorded (e.g. Lao PDR or Viet Nam).

Table 7.6 Gum benzoin ^a - Volume of exports from Indonesia by port of exportation, 1988-1995 (tonnes)

Note: a: See note a, Table 7.4
Source: Indonesia Foreign Trade Statistics

7.4.1 Thailand

Volume and value/unit value data for imports into Thailand for the 10 years 1987-1996 are shown in Tables 7.7 and 7.8, respectively. Value data were converted from Thai Baht to US$ using published historical exchange rates.

Table 7.7 Gum benzoin - Volume of imports into Thailand by origins, 1987-1996 (tonnes)

Source: Foreign Trade Statistics of Thailand

Table 7.7 is interesting for what it does not show as much as for what it does. Imports from Lao PDR only appear for 1987 (6 tonnes) and yet exports of benzoin from Thailand for the same period (see Table 7.10), which are presumed to be of Lao origin, are recorded up to 1995. Apart from Indonesia, imports from all other sources were less than 0.5 tonnes.

The differences in unit value for the imports from Lao PDR and Indonesia (Table 7.8) reflect the differences in price between Siam and Sumatra benzoins. Imports from Japan, the UK and the USA appear to be processed products.

Table 7.8 Gum benzoin - Value and unit value of imports into Thailand by origins, 1987-1996 (1,000 US$; US$/kg)

Notes:

a: CIF value in Baht converted to US$ using following average exchange rates: 25.723 (1987), 25.294 (1988), 25.702 (1989), 25.585 (1990), 25.517 (1991), 25.400 (1992), 25.319 (1993), 25.150 (1994), 24.915 (1995), 25.323 (Jan.-Nov. 1996)

b: Calculated using exact figures for volume and value from source data rather than those rounded to nearest tonne and 1,000 US$

Sources: Foreign Trade Statistics of Thailand; International Financial Statistics, IMF

7.4.2 Singapore

Volumes of imports into Singapore for the 10 years 1987-1996 are shown in Table 7.9.

Table 7.9 Gum benjamin - Volume of imports into Singapore by origins ^a, 1987-1996 (tonnes)

Note: a: ‘-’ does not necessarily indicate nil, but that the particular destination is not specified in the source data; it may be included in Others.

Source: Singapore Trade Statistics

It is immediately evident that Indonesia is never cited as a country of origin for Singaporean imports, despite the fact that it is overwhelmingly the major source, and this results in completely misleading figures for total, officially published imports. The volumes recorded are incompatible with Singapore’s exports (see below). Although the Singapore Trade Development Board was unable to explain this, it is believed to be due to a protocol negotiated between the two countries during the late 1960s which allows certain commodities (including rubber and pepper as well as benzoin) to be imported into Singapore from Indonesia without being recorded in Singapore’s trade statistics.

Figures for all of the source countries shown in Table 7.9 represent re-exports. The years for which Thai imports are recorded agree with those given below for Thai exports into Singapore (Table 7.10), although the volumes are slightly different, more so for 1987. This mismatch between a country’s apparent imports from one source and the recorded exports from that source into the country is not uncommon, and not always easily explained. Some discrepancies arise because exports shipped at the end of one year are not recorded by the importing country until the following year. There may also be differences in the heading under which the item falls in the exporting and importing countries.

In view of the deficiencies in the Singaporean import data, values and unit values are not presented here, although they indicate that imports from Thailand, for example, which are likely to be Siam benzoin, are more highly valued than those from India, Pakistan and Malaysia.

7.5 Export data - Secondary source countries

7.5.1 Thailand

Exports of benzoin from Thailand, and destinations, for the period 1987-1996 are shown in Table 7.10 (volume) and Table 7.11 (value and unit value).

Table 7.10 Gum benzoin - Volume of exports from Thailand by destinations, 1987-1996 (tonnes)

Source: Foreign Trade Statistics of Thailand.

Exports were erratic, varying from nil in 1996 to 18 tonnes in 1994. The 10-year annual average is approximately 9 tonnes. Hong Kong and Singapore are both likely to be intermediate destinations. The Indonesian figure for 1995 is presumed to be Siam benzoin intended for extraction and so also represents an intermediate destination.

The high unit value of exports to Germany and France suggests that they include a high proportion of the top grades of Siam benzoin.

Table 7.11 Gum benzoin - Value and unit value of exports from Thailand by destinations, 1987-1996 (1,000 US$; US$/kg)

Notes:

a: FOB value; see note a, Table 7.8
b: See note b, Table 7.8

Source: Foreign Trade Statistics of Thailand

7.5.2 Singapore

The volume of exports of gum benjamin (gum benzoin) from Singapore, and destinations, for the 10 years 1987-1996 are shown in Table 7.12.

Annual exports have varied from around 2,800 tonnes (1987) to just over 4,000 tonnes (1996). The annual average is 3,600 tonnes. Since 1990, the source data give both total exports and domestic exports, the latter therefore giving an indication, in the case of benzoin, of the amounts which are processed in Singapore (into block or extract). From 1991 to 1995, the proportion of benzoin exported in processed form was 51% of total exports; it rose slightly to 54% in 1996.

The volumes of benzoin exported are clearly much greater than the exports from Indonesia suggest. Recorded exports to Singapore averaged 940 tonnes for 1987-1995, compared with Singapore exports for the same period of 3,500 tonnes. This can be explained, however, by the considerable amounts of damar which are used in the preparation of block benzoin, as well as the higher moisture content of the latter compared with benzoin almonds.

The destinations listed in Table 7.12 have been grouped according to geographical region and several features are evident. Most significantly, the data support the statements made by the various traders which were visited during the mission, namely, that the major markets are in the Middle East, India and North Africa, where the benzoin is used for incense purposes. Saudi Arabia is the biggest single market, and may re-export to some smaller Gulf states, but the United Arab Emirates also take significant quantities. In Africa, Djibouti serves as an entrepôt; Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt are other prominent importers. In West Africa, Nigeria is important. In the Indian sub-continent, India and Sri Lanka import large amounts of benzoin, and in Asia, Malaysia is by far the biggest importer. France, Germany and the UK are the biggest markets in Europe.

Table 7.12 Gum benjamin - Volume of exports from Singapore by destinations ^a, 1987-1996 (tonnes)

Notes:

a: ‘-’ does not necessarily indicate nil, but that the particular destination is not specified in the source data; it may be included in Other Africa or Others.

b: Total exports comprise domestic exports and re-exports (but exclude transshipment cargo on through bills of lading or through airway bill).

c: Domestic exports are those of Singapore origin and comprise primary commodities grown or produced in Singapore and goods which have been transformed, that is processed in Singapore, including those with imported materials.

d: Includes Benin, 19 tonnes (1987) and 26 tonnes (1988); Sudan, 26 tonnes (1987) and 40 tonnes (1988); and Libya, 38 tonnes (1989), which are specified in source data. Other source data are recorded simply as Other countries, Africa. e: Includes Hong Kong, 5 tonnes (1991); Lebanon, 10 tonnes (1994); and Venezuela, 16 tonnes (1996).

Source: Singapore Trade Statistics

The data in Table 7.12 have been condensed in Table 7.13, which shows the destinations grouped into regions. The percentage of total exports for each year taken by each region is also given.

The Middle East is seen to account for about one third of Singapore’s exports of benzoin, with Africa accounting for between a quarter and one third.

Table 7.13 Gum benjamin - Volume of exports from Singapore, and destinations by region, 1987-1996 (tonnes; %)

Source: Table 7.12

The value of benzoin exports from Singapore for each of the destinations in Table 7.12 is shown in Table 7.14.

Table 7.14 Gum benjamin - Value ^a of exports from Singapore by destinations ^b, 1987-1996 (1,000 US$)

Notes:

a: FOB value in S$ converted to US$ using following average exchange rates: 2.1060 (1987), 2.0124 (1988), 1.9503 (1989), 1.8125 (1990), 1.7276 (1991), 1.6290 (1992), 1.6158 (1993), 1.5274 (1994), 1.4174 (1995), 1.4109 (Jan.-Nov. 1996)

b: See note a, Table 7.12

c: See note b, Table 7.12

d: See note c, Table 7.12

e: Includes Benin, US$12,000 (1987) and US$18,000 (1988); Sudan, US$17,000 (1987) and US$25,000 (1988); and Libya, US$32,000 (1989), which are specified in source data. Other source data are recorded simply as Other countries, Africa.

f: Includes Hong Kong, US$31 000 (1991); Lebanon, US$18 000 (1994); and Venezuela, US$18 000 (1996)

Sources: Singapore Trade Statistics; International Financial Statistics, IMF

The total value to Singapore ranged from US$ 3.4 million in 1987 to US$ 5.2 million in 1996. Saudi Arabia remains the major market in value terms, but India, which was third behind Djibouti in volume terms, is the second biggest market in value. The relatively high value of exports to France (and other European destinations) compared with the modest volumes involved are particularly notable. The value data in Table 7.14 are summarized by region in Table 7.15.

Table 7.15 Gum benjamin - Value of exports from Singapore, and destinations by region, 1987-1996 (1,000 US$; %)

Source: Table 7.14

It can be seen by comparing the percentages of total exports taken by the different regions in volume (Table 7.13) with those in value terms (Table 7.15) that although Europe only accounts for around 5-6% of Singapore’s benzoin exports in quantity, this share increases to around 14-16% in value terms. Conversely, in most years Africa has accounted for approximately 30% of exports but this drops to around 15-20% when considered in value terms.

Unit values have been calculated for each of the destinations and these are shown in Table 7.16 (individually) and Table 7.17 (by region).

Table 7.16 Gum benjamin - Unit value of exports from Singapore by destinations, 1987-1996 (US$/kg)

Notes:

a: See note b, Table 7.12
b: See note c, Table 7.12
c: See note d, Table 7.12 and note e, Table 7.14
d: See note e, Table 7.12 and note f, Table 7.14

Source: Calculated from Tables 7.12 and 7.14 (using exact figures for value rather than those rounded to nearest 1,000 US$).

Table 7.17 Gum benjamin - Unit value of exports from Singapore, and destinations by region, 1987-1996 (US$/kg)

Source: Calculated from Tables 7.13 and 7.15

Looking first at regional differences in unit values (Table 7.17), the figures are highest for Europe and the United States, confirming that a greater proportion of high grade benzoin and/or extract is going to these regions. Unit values are lowest for Africa.

Closer inspection of the data (Table 7.16) reveals further differences within a region. In Europe, for example, apart from 1993, Italy’s imports have had a consistently and significantly higher unit value than those of the other countries, presumably indicating that less lower quality benzoin is being imported which would have had the effect of lowering the overall unit value. The lower unit value for Greece indicates, perhaps, that the benzoin is intended mainly for incense use in the Greek Orthodox Church.

In Asia, Malaysian imports of benzoin are used mainly for incense purposes and this is reflected in lower unit values than those for Taiwan and Japan. Figures for India are higher than those for other countries in the Indian sub-continent and this may be a reflection of the strong fragrance and flavour industries in India and their requirements for suitable, higher quality benzoin.

7.6 Import data - Other countries

Where they were available, import data for a few of the major destinations, as indicated by the Singapore exports, were examined and these are discussed briefly below.

7.6.1 Saudi Arabia

Volumes of imports into Saudi Arabia for the years 1991, 1992 and 1994 (the only years available) are shown in Table 7.18.

Table 7.18 Gum benzoin - Volume of imports into Saudi Arabia by origins, 1991-1994 (tonnes)

Source: Saudi Arabia. Foreign Trade Statistics

The total volumes indicated in Table 7.18 appear to be reasonable when compared with total exports from Indonesia and Singapore but individual figures for the two countries agree poorly with those in Table 7.18. In the case of Indonesia (Table 7.4), there appears to be severe under-recording of exports to Saudi Arabia. This is even greater than Table 7.18 indicates because Indonesia is included as a country of origin for Saudi imports of frankincense; this represents benzoin and not genuine frankincense. Conversely, Singapore’s exports to Saudi Arabia (Table 7.12) are much higher than those shown in Table 7.18. One explanation may be that in the case of imports from Singapore, some of which represent re-exports (without further processing) from Indonesia, Saudi data refer to the country of origin.

7.6.2 India

Indian imports of benzoin for the period 1990/91-1995/96 are shown in Table 7.19 (by volume). In the Indian trade statistics, benzoin (benjamin) is separated into benjamin ras and benjamin cowrie and these terms are retained in Table 7.19. An Indian trade source states that benjamin cowrie refers to benzoin almonds, while benjamin ras is block benzoin. However, this would suggest that unit values should be higher for benjamin cowrie, when in practice calculated values (not presented here) are very similar for the two types.

The volumes of annual imports shown in Table 7.19 are very erratic, varying from about 90 tonnes up to 280 tonnes, and there must be some question over their accuracy. The total figure of 182 tonnes from Myanmar is extremely doubtful. Levels of imports from Singapore are much lower than the Singapore export data indicate (Table 7.12) and this is not compensated for by high imports from Indonesia. Deliberate misrepresentation of benzoin to avoid import duties may be an explanation.

Table 7.19 Gum benjamin - Volume of imports into India by origins, 1990/91-1995/96 ^a (tonnes)

Note: a: Statistical year runs April to March
Source: India. Foreign Trade Statistics

7.6.3 Malaysia

Malaysian imports are shown in Table 7.20 (by volume) and Table 7.21 (value and unit value).

As with Saudi Arabia, Malaysian imports from Indonesia are much higher than Indonesia’s export statistics indicate, while imports from Singapore are much lower than the Singaporean export data show. Again, the answer may lie in the Indonesian origin of Singaporean re-exports.

The figures for unit value (Table 7.21) confirm the low quality of the benzoin imported into Malaysia.

Table 7.20 Gum benjamin - Volume of imports into Malaysia by origins ^a, 1987-1996 (tonnes)

Notes:

a: In addition to the countries listed, Tanzania (1987,1990), Viet Nam (1988), Hong Kong (1988, 1989, 1990), Japan (1989), Taiwan (1989), UK (1989), Egypt (1989) and Iran (1990) supplied small (< 0.5 tonne) or very small (<< 0.5 tonne) volumes. Apart from Viet Nam, these are all likely to represent re-exports

b: Provisional (at April 1997). Final figures to be published October 1997

Source: Malaysia. External Trade Statistics

Table 7.21 Gum benjamin - Value and unit value of imports into Malaysia by origins, 1987-1996 (1,000 US$; US$/kg)