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The challenge of managing domesticated Asian elephants in Nepal - Fanindra R. Kharel


Introduction

Almost 57 percent of Nepal's land was covered by forest in 1961 (Kharel, 1985). This was reduced to 29 percent during the last four decades (HMGN, 1999). The loss of forest resources, largely limited to the lowlands (the Terai region), was mostly the result of extensive clearing for agriculture and commercial timber operations aided by an increased fuelwood demand by a burgeoning population[6]. This resulted in the loss of wild Asian elephant habitat and, consequently, a decrease in the number of elephants found in Nepal.

The Asian elephant (Elephas maximus) is endangered throughout the region and is in danger of becoming extirpated in Nepal. A rapidly growing human population and its need for land development have led to an increase in the incidence of human-elephant conflicts. As a result, the elephants are now mostly confined to national parks and wildlife reserves.

The history of the capture, taming and use of Asian elephants is a long one. Domesticated Asian elephants have long been associated with religious beliefs and practices, and the elephant was a status symbol of a wealthy owner in the past. Now, the domesticated elephants in Nepal are used for forest excursions, and for entertaining tourists in parks and reserves. They have also become an important scientific subject for wildlife biologists, park/reserve managers and field investigators. Elephant camps have been established along with protected areas located in the lowlands of Nepal, namely the Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve (KTWR), the Parsa Wildlife Reserve (PWR), the Royal Chitwan National Park (RCNP), the Royal Bardia National Park (RBNP) and the Royal Suklaphanta Wildlife Reserve (RSWR).

Realizing the need to conserve the declining population of wild elephants in Nepal, a Task Force was commissioned in 1985 by the Chief Secretariat of His Majesty the King to carry out a study and make recommendations on the management of elephants in captivity. As a result of the recommendations contained in the Task Force Report (1985), an elephant breeding center was established at Khorsor in RCNP in1986. The objectives of the breeding center were to begin scientific breeding and carry out research on elephants. It was also expected to gain experience in elephant management and their use in the management of protected areas. Initially, the elephant breeding center began with 22 elephants (16 from India, four from Thailand and two from Myanmar). Today, the number stands the same and consists of three adult males, two juvenile males, 13 breeding females and four infants.

The above mentioned elephant camps and breeding center have played a key role in conserving this species through captive breeding.

Status of wild elephants

Until 1960, there was a large number of Asian elephants throughout the entire lowland forest area of Nepal. As a result of a massive human resettlement programme the forest cover was extensively cleared, and the elephant population dwindled to about 100 individuals.

Based on the spatial movement of the wild elephants, the country's elephant population has been categorized into four groups or sub-populations.

1). Eastern population: The population of this region is confined to the highly degraded and fragmented forest patches. This population consists of temporary migrants from the neighbouring state of West Bengal. The total sub-population varies between 10-15 individuals and is mostly seen during the paddy-harvesting season that lasts from September to October (personal communication, Department of Forest personnel).

2). Central population: This comprises 25-30 resident animals within the Parsa Wildlife Reserve (PWR). Some splinter groups of this population have found their way into the adjoining Royal Chitwan National Park (RCNP) as well as into the buffer forest of the PWR (Chief Warden, PWR, personal communication and from an analysis of animal sighting reports of the last ten years).

3). Western population: The western population has been of particular interest since it was noted that there were only two bulls within the Royal Bardia National Park (RBNP) in 1987. However, later in the early nineties a herd of 25 elephants was sighted and recorded for the first time. These herds were known to have migrated in from the RSWR and from the adjoining forest areas of India and Dudhwa National Park. In 1994, 32 elephants were recorded in totality and have become residents for most of the year. The current population is between 45 and 50 individuals (S.S. Bajimaya, personal communication in 2000 and an analysis of animal sighting reports of the last 20 years). With this recruitment, it has become the largest sub-population of elephants in Nepal.

4). Far-western population: This population is not as stable as the populations of other places. The initial population was found to be between 25 and 30 animals. However, the population has reduced drastically over the years. These animals used to cross to the Indian side of the border during certain periods of the year and resided mainly in RSWR. They were seen moving along the foothills of the Siwalik Hills, eastward to RBNP and then returning by the same route. This movement of elephants has ceased since 1994. Now a herd of 12-18 animals (M.B. Pandey, personal communication in 2000 and an analysis of animal sighting reports of the last 15 years) can be seen in and around this area.

Status of domesticated elephants

Available records indicate that the management of domesticated elephants in Nepal has a long history and is said to have begun in 1903. At one time there were 31 elephant camps throughout the lowlands of Nepal. The capture and training of wild animals was a common practice in the past. A total of 17 domesticated elephants were released into the wild in 1914 and 10 wild elephants were captured for domestication during 1954-1970.

Although the reason for releasing elephants into the wild is not mentioned in reports, it can be assumed that those elephants were released because of the difficulty of finding them work or because of their old age. If we analyse the elephant population data at ten-year intervals from 1903, there is a clear indication that the population has decreased over the years (Table 1 and Fig. 1).

Table 1. Elephant populations at ten year intervals between 1903 and 1973

Years

1903

1913

1923

1933

1943

1953

1963

1973

No. of elephants

328

234

198

199

180

136

80

47

Source: Janchbujh Kendra Bibhag, Raj Durbar (1986)

Fig. 1. Declining trend of domesticated elephant populations at ten-year intervals between 1903 and 1973

Since 1978, the management responsibility of the domesticated elephant camps has been given to the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) by His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMGN). Accordingly, parks and reserves at KTWR, PWR, RCNP, RBNP and RSWR have maintained trained elephants. One elephant breeding center in RCNP has also been established and comprises 22 animals.

The number of elephants in these parks and reserves, including the breeding center, totals 77. Other than these elephants belonging to the government, the King Mahendra Trust for Nature Conservation (KMTNC), a prominent national NGO, and various hotels inside and outside of RCNP and outside of RBNP also keeps a significant number of elephants to cater to the needs of tourists and to conduct research. Tables 2 and 3 show the total number of domesticated elephants spread across the different camps.

Table 2. Domesticated elephants in government camps

Names of camps

Male

Female

Total

Adult

Sub adult

Juvenile

Adult

Sub adult

Juvenile

KTWR Elephant Camp

-

-

-

10

-

-

10

PWR"

-

-

-

8

-

-

8

RCNP"

11

-

-

9

-

-

20

RBNP"

-

-

-

10

-

-

10

RSWR"

-

-

-

7

-

-

7

RCNP Breeding Center

5

-

-

13

4

-

22

Total

77

Table 3. Domesticated elephants in private camps

Names of camps

Male

Female

Total

Adult

Sub adult

Juvenile

Adult

Sub adult

Juvenile

KMTNC, RCNP, Sauraha

-

-

-

5

-

-

5

KMTNC, RBNP

-

-

-

2

-

1

3

Hotel, West Nepal Adventure, RBNP

-

-

-

5

-

-

5

Hotel, Machan Wildlife, RCNP

1

-

-

9

-

-

10

Hotel, Chitwan Jungle Lodge, RCNP

-

-

-

9

-

-

9

Hotel Narayani Safari, RCNP

-

-

-

8

-

-

8

Hotel Tiger Tops, RCNP

3

-

1

10

-

-

14

Hotel Island, RCNP

-

-

-

6

-

-

6

Hotel Temple Tiger, RCNP

-

-

-

7

-

-

7

Central Zoo Jawalakhel

-

-

-

1

-

-

1

Individual Hotels at Sauraha outside the RCNP

-

-

-

17

-

-

17

Hotel at Piprahar outside the RCNP

-

-

-

2

-

-

2

Hotel Gaida Wildlife Camp, RCNP

-

-

-

7

-

-

7

Total

94

Altogether, there are 171 domesticated elephants in Nepal. This figure, which shows an increasing trend, is rather encouraging when we remember the decreasing trend of wild elephants seen from 1903 to 1973 (Table 1 and Fig. 1).

Current legal status of the Asian elephant

Under the provision of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (NPWC) Act 2029 (1973) and its 4th amendment 2049 (1993), the wild elephant (and another 25 species of mammals) falls under the protected species list (Appendix 1). According to section 26(1) of the NPWC Act, the killing or wounding of a wild elephant or buying any part of it (trophy) is punishable by 5 to 15 years imprisonment or a penalty of NRs. 50 000 to 100 000, or both. According to section 25 (1) of the Act, anyone furnishing information leading to the capture of anyone who kills or wounds a wild elephant is entitled to a reward of up to NRs. 50 000. Similarly, anyone furnishing information regarding those involved in selling or buying of any wild elephant-related product is entitled to a reward of up to NRs. 10 000. To implement these legal provisions, the Royal Nepalese Army has been deployed in national parks and wildlife reserves, except in Makalu-Barun National Park and Conservation Area (located in the High Mountain region) and in hunting reserves.

However, there is no specific legal provision to handle the keeping of domesticated elephants by hoteliers for the purpose of tourism, and by the government for various purposes including anti-poaching operations. Although, the Elephant Management Rules 2022 (1966) were passed by the HMGN, the rules were later repealed by the Civil Service Act 2049 (1993). The old rules had defined the standard of the elephant camps operated by the government, the Terms of Reference (TOR) of the chief of the camp, the authority for elephant control as well as the arrangements for the use of the elephants, and the procedures to be followed to dispose of a dead elephant after its natural death. Nevertheless, the new rules framed under the Civil Service Act 2049 (1993) made arrangements for three people to look after each elephant, namely a Pachhuwa, a Phanit and a Mahut. A hierarchy of one Rahut, one Daroga and one Shubba (senior clerk level) positions to supervise daily elephant caring activities has been stipulated for each elephant camp with the capacity to keep up to ten animals. To supervise all the government managed elephant camps in the country, an officer level position has also been provided by the rules framed under the Act. In addition, there is a daily food ration scale per elephant. According to the scale, an adult elephant is entitled to get 15 kg of paddy, 1.7 kg of sugar, 0.05 kg of salt, 15 kg of dry straw, 15 kg of carrot, 1.5 kg of pumpkin, 2.1 kg of potato, 80-100 kg of grass/fodder and 150 litres of drinking water.

However, it is not necessary for the private sector to abide by these provisions of the Civil Service Act, including the food ration scale system, when taking care of privately owned elephants. For the sake of these animals, a Domesticated Elephant Keeping and Management Act and Regulations are essential. These would ensure that government owned elephants and privately owned elephants are treated equally.

Registration of domesticated elephants

Since the enactment of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2029 in 1973, the capture of wild elephants for domestication has been strictly prohibited and no wild elephant has been captured. There is no report of breeding among the cow elephants kept by the private sector at hotels and safari camps, except one at the Tiger Tops in 1980 and one very recently in 2000, in KMTNC/RBNP. The Tiger Tops calf was later trained at the government-owned elephant breeding center in RCNP and the recently born calf is being taken care of by the KMTC/RBNP itself.

The registration system is only applied to government-owned elephants and consists of giving a new name to a calf. There is a tradition in Nepal of accompanying the names of elephants with a word identifying their sex: Gaja or Prasad denotes a male and Kali denotes a female. Before the restoration of the multi-party democratic system in 1990 in Nepal, the birth of a baby elephant used to be reported to the Royal Palace which provided a new name for the calf and appointed a caretaker for the elephant who then received the food rations for the baby elephant. After the baby reached the age of eight years, it was treated as an adult and received full rations. Since 1990, the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) has provided names for baby elephants after being sent news of a birth by the concerned warden. The positions of caretaker of the additional elephant are created by His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMGN) and is processed through the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC) as per the proposal forwarded by the DNPWC.

For breeding purposes, a Birendra Prasad, a good servicing male, is used. However, most of the newborn elephants are the products of visiting wild elephants. The data on elephant births in Nepal from 1979 to mid 2000 is presented in Table 4.

As no regulations cover the registration of privately domesticated elephants owned by private owners it is imperative that a new policy be framed to address this issue.

Elephant care

The Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (DNPWC) under the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation (MFSC) is the only government agency responsible for taking care of Asian elephants in the wild. The DNPWC has played a major role in taking care of the animals by managing elephant camps in the protected areas located at various locations in the lowlands of Nepal. The DNPWC was also instrumental in establishing a breeding centre. Apart from the DNPWC, the private sector (hoteliers) have kept significant numbers of elephants for tourism purposes, especially for trekking to view wildlife in and around the parks and reserves. There is a strong need for further research and collaboration related to the captive-breeding programme. So far, no national or international organization has provided support to the Department for this.

Table 4. Births of domesticated elephants

Name of mother

Calf's name

Year of birth

Status

Sire

Remarks

Tribhuvan Kali

Unnamed

1979

killed

Ganesh Gaja[7]

Kicked by mother after parturition

Durga Kali

Samsher Guj

1980

alive

Wild

Tiger tops

Manju Kali

Nirajan Prasad

1981

alive

Ganesh Gaja

Born at KTWR

Tribhuvan Kali

Gyanendra Prasad

1981

alive

Ganesh Gaja

Born at KTWR

Rup Kali

Puja kali

1984

alive

Ganesh Gaja

Born at KTWR

Aishwarya Kali

Dipendra Prasad

1984

died

Ganesh Gaja

Died at age 6 in KTWR

Dipendra Kali

Unnamed

1986

died

Ganesh Gaja

Died after 9 days in KTWR

Tribhuvan Kali

Gyanednra Prasad

1981

alive

Ganesh Gaja

KTWR

Rup kali

Puja kali

1984

alive

Ganesh Gaja

KTWR

Aishwarya Kali

Dipendra Prasad

1984

died

Ganesh Gaja

Died after 9 days in KTWR

Tribhuban Kali

Prerana Kali

1986

live

Ganesh Gaja

KTWR

Rampyari Kali

Chitwan Kali

1987

live

Ganesh Gaja

RCNP

Bhrikuti Kali

Ram Gaja

1987

live

Ganesh Gaja

RCNP

Rupa Kali

Ganesh Kali

1990

died

Ganesh Gaja

Died 2 hours later in RCNP

Komal Kali

Stillborn

1993

dead

Wild

Born dead, RCNP

Rampyari Kali

Bahadur Gaja

1994

alive

Birendra pd.

RCNP

Rup Kali

Unnamed

1996

died

Wild

Dead after 9 days in RSWR

Pawan Kali

stillborn

1997

dead

Wild

Born dead, RBNP

Prerana Kali

Gandaki Kali

1998

alive

Wild

RCNP

Sitashma Kali

Karnali Kali

1998

alive

Wild

RCNP

Sashi Kali

Rapti Kali

1998

alive

Wild

RCNP

Bhawani Kali

Stillborn

1999

dead

Wild

RCNP

Sashi Kali

Narayani Kali

2000

alive

Wild

RCNP

Laxmi kali

stillborn

2000

dead

Wild

Born dead, RCNP

Shanti Kali

Unnamed

2000

live

Wild

KMTNC, Bardia

Source: DNPWC

Use of elephants

As outlined earlier, domesticated elephants are mostly being used for forest excursions and for entertaining tourists in parks and reserves. The elephants have been heavily used by park/reserve managers and field investigators for the study of flagship species such as the Royal Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris) and the Greater One Horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis).

Without the use of elephants, it is almost impossible to capture large mammals and carry out research studies. For example, the DNPWC was successful in translocating five rhinos between 1986 and 2000 from RCNP to RBNP and RSWR to establish a viable population there. In total, 58 rhinoceros were translocated to RBNP and four to RSWR. Similarly, elephants are being used for counting rhinoceros. The service provided by these elephants in all aspects of park management cannot be evaluated in monetary terms.

The elephants are also being used for conducting wildlife monitoring and anti-poaching activities in the parks and reserves. Moreover, the elephants are being used for rescue operations during natural calamities such as floods. The elephants are essential to the performance of special ceremonies such as royal weddings and during the coronation of the heir apparent.

In addition to all the above mentioned, the elephants are being used for promoting ecotourism. Because of the influx of wildlife tourism in and around the parks and reserves, the demand for elephants has increased from the private sector such as hoteliers and tour operators. In this respect, elephants are a very important source of income for their owners: an owner can legally charge a foreign tourist Rs.650 for providing two hours of riding on an elephant. An elephant can carry four tourists at a time and that amounts to Rs.1 300 per hour.

From the above discussion, it is safe to conclude that there are tangible and intangible benefits associated with elephants, if the animals are kept and managed properly. There is also scope for the private sector to keep elephants because of the increasing trend of tourists visiting parks and reserves.

Veterinary care

Although there is a Department of Animal Health with an extensive network in 75 administrative districts of Nepal to take care of animal health, there is very little information about veterinary care for elephants. The DNPWC has only one Veterinary Officer and various paramedical assistant positions to take care of elephants kept in various camps and a breeding centre. Moreover, the DNPWC does not have sufficient funds to purchase the necessary drugs and equipment to take care of its elephants. In general, the veterinary care service is relatively poor and assistance is being solicited from a variety of sources.

Summary and recommendations

As in other parts of the world, the destruction of dense forests led to the shrinking of the habitat of the Asian elephant in Nepal. To cope with the situation, the HMGN enacted the NPWC Act in 1973 to provide strict protection to this species (as well as another 25 mammals) in the wild. Domesticated elephant camps and a breeding centre, along with a hierarchy of supervision personnel, were established for captive elephants. Combined with veterinary care, the allocation of individual animal caretakers, and a system of daily food rations for the animals these measures helped to increase the number of elephants in captivity. The use of elephants in parks and reserves is essential for tourism and other activities. However, there are no specific acts and regulations to bring the private sector within the framework of the system established and practised by the government regarding the registration of animals, their care and their use. This has to be remedied by a provision in the NPWC Act and by HMGN framing appropriate regulations to address these issues. In addition, the following recommendations have been made for the welfare of domesticated elephants.

1. Because of the lack of sheds in elephant camps, the chained elephants are under the open sky throughout the year, even during the cold frosty nights of winter and the hot sunny days of summer, which shortens the lives of elephants. Therefore, the construction of sheds in all government and private elephant camps is required.

2. Because of the lack of compound walls in all elephant camps, the intrusion of domestic cattle poses a serious threat of transmitting various diseases to the elephants. To prevent this, the construction of compound walls is essential.

3. There are inadequate in-house store facilities and space to store food rations, fodder/grasses and straw. These should be provided in all elephant camps.

4. Reduced availability of fodder during the lean period means that there is a high level of damage to the surrounding vegetation caused by trampling. To sustain the elephant fodder supply in perpetuity the plantation of palatable species is recommended for government as well as for privately kept elephants.

5. Personnel employed in the elephant camps have had to learn to take care of the elephants on their own. Training in all aspects of elephant care and management should be provided to staff at all levels.

6. There is a need for research and monitoring of the domesticated elephants' impact on parks/reserves and buffer zones as an integral part of national park management.

Bibliography

HMGN. 1966. Hattiko Byabastha Garne Niyamaharu 2022. Ministry of Law, His Majesty's Government, Kathmandu, Nepal (in Nepali)

HMGN. 1973. The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act, 2029. Nepal Gazettee 2029/11/28 as amended in 2031/6/20 (1974), 2039/9/8 (1982), 2046/6/11 (1989) and 2050/2/27 (1993). Ministry of Law and Justice, His Majesty's Government, Kathmandu, Nepal (in Nepali)

HMGN. 1993. Civil Service Act 2049. Ministry of Law and Justice, Kanun Kitab Byabathspan Samiti Kathmandu, Nepal (in Nepali)

HMGN. 1993. Civil service rules 2050. Ministry of Law and Justice, Kanun Kitab Byabathspan Samiti Kathmandu, Nepal

HMGN. 1996. Madhyabarti Kshetra Byabasthapan Niyamawali 2052. Nepal Gazettee 2052/11/28. Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, His Majesty's Government, Kathmandu, Nepal (in Nepali)

HMGN. 1999. Forest resources of Nepal (1987-1998). A joint publication of the Department of Forest Research and Survey, Ministry of Forest and Soil Conservation, His Majesty's Government and Forest Resource Information System Project, The Government of Finland, Publication no. 74, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Janchbujh Kendra Bibhag Raj Durbar. 1986. Hatti Byabasthapan Yojana Tarujma Pratibedan 2042, Principal Secretariat of His Majesty King, Royal Palace, Kathmandu, Nepal (in Nepali).

Kharel, F.R. 1985. Allocation of benefits in different levels of rural structure from community forestry. Institute of Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. (Bachelor of Science dissertation).


[6] The human population growth rate of Nepal's tropical region is an average of 2.66 percent per year and this was exacerbated by migration from the hills to the lowlands.
[7] A very popular giant semi-wild bull and a regular visitor to KTWR Elephant camp. The bull used to mate with the captive females and played a significant role in the history of captive breeding of elephants in Nepal. This bull has left eight of its live calves behind from various cows. In 1991, the bull died of septic wounds.

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