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Work is being carried out in coordination with CATIE through the project, “Determination of genetic diversity of tropical arboreal species with economic and ecological importance in Central America and the Caribbean; Implications for their conservation, use and sustainable management”. The general coordinator is Dr. Julia Wilson (1996; Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Scotland).
Basically, this project includes a programme of sampling in Swietenia macrophylla populations in Central America (Belize to Panama). The project is aimed at quantifying genetic variation and relating it to population characteristics. The primary tool for achieving this is the use of Random Amplified Polymorphic DNAs (RAPD's). Dr. Amanda Gillies (1996) is in charge of the ITE study. The use of other molecular techniques is also being considered.
CATIE is in charge of the field work carried out within the framework of this project, and the person leading this activity is Carlos Navarro Pereira (1996); the Belize counterpart is Oswaldo Sabido (1996). Plans have been made for the establishment of field trials based on the collections (provenance trials), which will allow a comparison of variation in morphological characteristics and molecular markers. The information will be used to strengthen the component of breeding for resistance to Hypsipyla.
Research and development projects are currently in process which are important for evaluating the present status of valuable Meliaceae in the Amazon region, and in the neotropics in general.
The official coordinator of genetic resources in Brazil is CENARGEN/EMBRAPA, which is establishing a “Conservation and Use of Amazonian Genetic Resources” -network GENAMAZ. The focus of this network is on the following activities (Morales and Valois, 1995):
In 1995 a research proposal was prepared entitled, “Silviculture, Management and Conservation of the Mahogany (S. macrophylla) in the State of Para, Brazil”, with the participation of nine institutions (EMBRAPA/CPATU, FCAP, UFPA, MPEG, IBAMA, IMAZON, FIEPA/AIMEX, Pennsylvania University and SUDAM) and coordinated by the Secretary of State for Science and Technology and the Environment of the state of Para (SECTAM). The six sub-projects involved are (Kageyama, 1996): Distribution and variation patterns of mahogany populations; Ecology and dynamics of mahogany regeneration; Genetic variation in mahogany; Silviculture of mahogany in natural forests; Silviculture of mahogany plantations; Production costs of different silvicultural systems and marketing studies for mahogany timber.
Two Cedrela species in Brazil are included in a research project entitled, “Methodology for in situ Genetic Conservation”, conducted by the University of São Paulo and CENARGEN/EMBRAPA, with assistance of FAO, IPGRI, FAPESP-Brazil; and GEF/BIRD.
Among NGOs, IMAZON (Instituto do Homem e Mejo Ambiente de Amazônia - Amazonian Institute of Man and the Environment) is carrying out research on mahogany as one of its priorities (Verissimo et al, 1995). The principal research project of this NGO in this area is entitled, “Estimation of the distribution, variation patterns and populations of mahogany (S. macrophylla) in Para, Brazil”, and is carried out in cooperation with the University of Pennsylvania.
INPA (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisa de Amazonia - National Research Institute of the Amazon) carries out research projects on tropical forest management, being an acknowledged authority in this field. One of its projects is entitled: “BIONTE (Bio-mass and forest nutrients)”, and is financed by ODA-UK. The project includes a sub-project associated with forest management (N. Higushi - Pers. Com.).
INPA has another research project especially focused on mahogany genetics, coordinated by M. Lemes, and financed by WWF-Brazil and the Margareth Mee Foundation, entitled: “Genetic variability of S. macrophylla in the Brazilian Amazon” (Kageyama, 1996).
The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) is financing some projects in Brazil, one of which involves research directed towards methods of sustainable forest management. This project, based in the State of Acre, is carried out in conjunction with FUNTAC-AC, and is entitled: “Integrated Development of Forests of the Western Amazon Technology for the Sustainable Use of Raw Materials from the Forest” (Zakia, cited by Kageyama, 1996).
A programme on disease resistance has been carried out since 1990 and ends in 1996. The work has been financed by ODA (Overseas Development Agency) of the United Kingdom, under contract with CATIE/Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (ITE) (Scotland), and is being implemented by the Tree Improvement Project of CATIE, with the support of several consultants of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology (Dr. Jan Dick, Dr. Adrian Newton and Dr. Allan Watt, 1996).
Two provenance/progeny trials have been established as well as a clonal study of Cedrela odorata.
Various reports which contain early results from the provenance/progeny trials have been published. An article was published in Silva Genética (44) 146, reporting on results of a study in which the terminal bud of the trees was removed (simulation of a Hypsipyla attack).
The most recent provenance/progeny trials of Cedrela and the clonal test of the same species, are presently being evaluated by a graduate student (Julio López Payes; 1996), who will use the information for his graduate thesis.
Work is being carried out in coordination with the project: “Determination of genetic diversity of tropical arboreal species of economic and ecological importance in Central America and the Caribbean: Implications for their conservation, use and sustainable management”. The general coordinator is Dr. Julia Wilson (1996; Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Scotland).
The mahogany component of the project includes sampling of Swietenia macrophylla populations in Central America (Belize to Panama). The objective is to quantify genetic variation, relating it to special characteristics of given populations. The primary tool used is RAPDs. Dr. Amanda Gillies (1996) is in charge of the study on behalf of the ITE. The use of other molecular techniques to develop this work is also being considered.
CATIE is in charge of the field work within the framework of this project, the person in charge is Carlos Navarro Pereira (1996). Plans have been made for the establishment of field trials based on the collections (provenance trials), which will allow a comparison of variation in morphological characteristics and molecular markers. The information will be used to strengthen the component of breeding for resistance to Hypsipyla.
95% of the work carried out within the framework of the project is focused on S. macrophylla, and a small portion of it on C. odorata.
CATIE has a number of other research projects related to genetic aspects of mahogany, among them David Boshier (1996) of the Oxford Forestry Institute, works on population genetics and reproductive biology of S. humilis in Central America. The work includes establishment and assessment of provenance/progeny trials of S. macrophylla and C. odorata.
In Cuba there are 23 species of the Meliaceae family: thirteen have been introduced and ten are native. Among the indigenous species, there are two endemics which are threatened species: Trichilia pungens Urban and T. trachyantha (Griseb) C. DC; one indigenous, and endemic species Cedrela cubensis Bisse; and seven indigenous species: Cedrela odorata L, Swietenia mahagoni (L) Jacq., Carapa guianensis Aubl., Guarea guidonia (L) Sleumer., Trichilia hirta L., T. havanensis Jacq. and T. trifolia L.
Dr. Marrero of the Forest Research Institute reports below on the situation of Swietenia and Cedrela species in regard to their genetic conservation, management in natural forests and genetic improvement (1996):
Cedrela cubensis: This species occurs in the dry areas (Monte Seco formation) throughout the country: there are no specific conservation areas for its protection. Only taxonomic information is available. Some experiments have been made on vegetative propagation of this species, in addition to progeny trials based on open-pollinated seed.
C. odorata: this species occurs throughout the country in semi-deciduous formations, overlying limy, acidic and poorly-drained soils. Two seed stands (7.8 ha) have been selected and there is a clone bank in which 255 clones are represented. A total of 54 provenances within the country can be considered protected. Research has been carried out on the management of the species using strip-cutting in the semi-deciduous forests overlying limestone, and using seedlings of this species for subsequent enrichment planting. Research is also underway on the management of this species in mixed plantations, and is included among the species studied by Betancourt (1987).
A tree improvement programme for C. odorata was initiated in the 1970's, using recurrent selection, based on five progeny trials - of which only three remain: these included a maximum of 11 families. One clonal seed orchard with 225 clones and of about 10 hectares has been established Due to lack of adequate management this area has been reduced to about 50%. Studies on heritability in diameter and height have been made (Lahera, Alvarez and Gamez, 1995). Biotechnological tools have been used in breeding for resistance to H. grandella.
Swietenia mahagoni occurs in semi-deciduous formations throughout the country. Five seed stands have been selected (10.5 hectares), which protect the same number of provenances in Cuba. The species has been included in a number of species/provenance trials, however, the results of these are not very promising due to the slow growth of the species. It has also been included in a tree improvement programme, aimed at obtaining hybrids (S. macrophylla × S. mahagoni), followed by the applications of new biotechnologies for in vitro propagation. S. mahagoni is included in a joint project with CATIE, Costa Rica, the conservation of the genetic resources of this species, for evaluation of genetic erosion caused by interbreeding with stands of the introduced S. macrophylla.
3 Information provided by Dr. Adelberto Marrero, Director, Forest Research Institute, Cuba.
Work is being carried out within the framework of the project: “Determination of genetic diversity of tropical arboreal species with economic and ecological importance in Central America and the Caribbean: Implications for their conservation, use and sustainable management”. The general coordinator is Dr. Julia Wilson (1996; ITE-Scotland).
Basically, this project includes a programme of sampling in Swietenia macrophylla populations in Central America (Belize to Panama). The objective is aimed at quantifying genetic variation and relating it to population characteristics. The primary tool for achieving this is the use of RAPDs. Dr. Amanda Gillies (1996) is in charge of the ITE study. The use of other molecular techniques is also being considered.
CATIE is in charge of the field work within the framework of this project. The overall coordinator is Carlos Navarro Pereira (1996). The Guatemalan counterparts in the study are Mauro Salazar (Centro Maya) and Rolando Ernillo (Tikal National Park). Plans have been made for the establishment of field trials (provenance trials), which will allow a comparison of variation in morphological characteristics and molecular markers. The information will be used to strengthen the component of breeding for resistance to Hypsipyla.
In Honduras, a project is underway entitled, “Conservation and Silviculture of Forest Species”. The project is being implemented under the direction of Mr. Ernesto G. Ponce (1996). The project includes important activities related to the genetic resources of forest species, including some Meliaceae. The following components can be mentioned:
In order to carry out applied research and clarify the interest in the use of mahoganies in forest plantations, with special reference to S. humilis and C. odorata, a study was carried out at community level, in which 10 native species of proven interest, providing a range of products, were included. Both Cedrela and Swietenia proved to be of top priority and highly preferred by the local communities.
Up to the present, experiments and seed orchards of Meliaceae have been established as described below:
Species trial of S. humilis and other native species, established on three sites.
Three seed orchards have been established for S. humilis: one in the central part of the country with 15 families, and two in the southern part with 19 and 51 families, respectively.
Enrichment planting using S. humilis was carried out in a secondary forest in the central part of the country.
A permanent sample plot was established of S. humilis in the central part of the country.
In 1995, two seed orchards of C. odorata were established in the central and southern parts of the country, each with 50 families.
All the above studies and seed orchards were established due to the manifested need for additional information on the behaviour of these species in plantations, and in an attempt to obtain data on growth and on variation in resistance to the attack of Hypsypyla among families.
Although many Protected Areas have been established in the country, only S. macrophylla and small remnants of C. odorata, are included in these. They do not include the remnant dry-forest occurrences of S. humilis and C. salvadorensis. For this reason, a project has been started with the aim of including populations of these species within the network of Protected Areas and Wildlife Reserves. It is interesting to note that in one of the areas identified a small number of individuals of C. salvadorensis were found, little is known in terms of physiology, reproduction and primary uses of this species in the country.
One of the objectives of the project is the production of a manual about the species and on its silviculture, which will include information on distribution, raising of seedlings, and silviculture.
Mr. Ponce comments (1996) that in Honduras there is a reluctance on the part of potential users to plant the species due to problems with Hypsipyla grandella, which constitutes a strong disincentive for the plantation of mahogany species.
Work is being carried out in coordination with the project: “Determination of genetic diversity of tropical arboreal species of economic and ecological importance in Central America and the Caribbean: Implications for their conservation, use and sustainable management”. The general coordinator is Dr. Julia Wilson (1996, ITE-Scotland).
The mahogany component of the project includes sampling of Swietenia macrophylla populations in Central America (Belize to Panama). The objective is aimed at quantifying genetic variation and relating it to specific characteristics of given populations. The primary tool used is RAPDs. Dr. Amanda Gillies (1996) of the ITE is in charge of the study. The use of other molecular techniques to develop this work is also being considered.
CATIE is in charge of the field work within the framework of this project; the person in charge is Carlos Navarro Pereira (1996). The Honduran counterpart is Oscar Leveron (1996) of ESNACIFOR. Plans have been made for the establishment of field trials based on the collections (provenance trials), which will allow a comparison of variation in morphological characteristics and molecular markers. The information will be used to strengthen the component of breeding for resistance to Hypsipyla.
4 Information provided by Mr. Ernesto G. Ponce, CONSEFORH.
The Institute of Biology of the Autonomous National University of Mexico (UNAM) carries out various programmes related to mahoganies. Among these, biologist Maria Teresa Germán Ramírez is presently working on the “Flora of Mexico” project, carrying out a review which will be used as the basis for a monograph on the Meliaceae family in Mexico (1996).
The Institute also collaborates in the “Meso-American Flora Project” (the Institute of Biology (UNAM), the British Museum of Natural History, and the Missouri Botanical Garden, USA), within the framework of which monographs and studies on the Meliaceae in the Meso-American region will also be published.
Work on the Meliaceae in the States of Sinaloa and Guerrero is about to be published (1996).
Collections have been made of provenances and progenies of S. macrophylla and C. odorata, primarily from natural populations on the Yucatan peninsula, and trials have been established in the experimental areas of INIFAP in the same region.
During 1995, additional similar work was initiated, in which populations of both S. macrophylla and C. odorata from the south and southeast of Mexico were sampled. The objective is to quantify the genetic variation found at population level through the use of field trials, complemented by the use of molecular markers.
Similarly, work is under way to clarify the reproductive biology and breeding system of Swietenia macrophylla; the phenology of flowering; the type of pollination, the pollinating agents; the presence or absence of incompatibility systems; and gene flow among populations and individuals of the species. The study also seeks to contribute to the knowledge, along with other related studies, on variation between populations; this will be done through provenance/progeny trials and through the use of molecular markers (RAPDs).
In 1990 a seed orchard was established with 25 select clones of Swietenia macrophylla populations from the Escárcega, Campeche region, with 10 repetitions for every clone. The orchard was established on land belonging to the Ing. Eduardo Sangri Serrano Experimental Field (El Tormento or The Torment) of INIFAP. The orchard has yet to begin the production of seeds; growth in height and diameter of the clones has varied from 3.23 m and 5.0 cm, to 5.39 m and 9.0 cm, respectively.
Following the modification of Article 27 of the Constitution related to small forest holdings; and following the change in credit mechanisms by the Secretary of the Treasury and Public Credit which makes it possible to obtain credit for the establishment and maintenance of plantations with an interest rate equivalent to the cost of inflation and with possibilities of refinancing up to 20 years, close to 2,000 hectares of Cedrela odorata plantations have been established in recent years in Campeche State. During 1996, it is hoped that 2,500 hectares more will be established; all these plantations will be on land that was cleared for other purposes, such as agriculture and ranching. In the case of S. macrophylla, there is interest in establishing plantations of this species in the States of Quintana Roo and Chiapas.
Likewise, programmes have been established which are directed towards supporting subsistence farmers who practise slash and burn agriculture. These programmes will include support to the establishment of agroforestry plots, in which C. odorata will be planted partially financed by the Federal Government. There are currently close to 1,000 hectares of such plantings in Yucatan.
A researcher from INIFAP is presently (1996) carrying out post-graduate studies in which he is developing models for predicting growth and yield of S. macrophylla plantations, using information from experimental plantations in Campeche and Quintana Roo.
Studies have also been carried out on various plantation management alternatives for S. macrophylla which i.a. test various plantation methods, fertilization, spacing, control of weeds and of competing species. While there are internal reports on these activities, none have yet been published (1996).
Permanent Sample Plots for Silvicultural Research are maintained in the States of Campeche and Quintana Roo, in which growth has been followed over a period of more than 15 years. This has allowed a better understanding of the dynamics of the rainforests in southeast Mexico, and has provided information on growth parameters for natural forest stands and for the species present.
There are both Biosphere Reserves and Protected Areas in the country, especially in the southeast, in which S. macrophylla and C. odorata populations are found. On slopes of the Pacific Ocean some reserves with small remnant populations of dry tropical forest are also found, in which S. humilis and C. oaxacensis can be found.
The Biosphere Reserves in Calakmul in Campeche, Siá ankán in Quintana Roo and Montes Azules in Chiapas, are examples of the above; there are other, less extensive reserves, and populations of Swietenia and, occasionally, of Cedrela, can be found in many of them.
On the Yucatán Peninsula of southeast Mexico, additional small areas containing Swietenia and Cedrela populations have been located, which have been converted into protection areas in which these species are protected by a formal agreement with forestry commons. These include Nuevo Becal in Campeche, in which an in situ conservation area for S. macrophylla of 100 hectares has been demarcated. Local people have committed themselves to maintaining the area, which has a tree population of 20 S. macrophylla trees per hectare. These are primarily young trees of good phenotype.
Likewise, INIFAP has two Experimental Field Stations in the region: San Felipe Bacalar, Quintana Roo (8,000 ha) and Ing. Eduardo Sangri Serrano (The Torment), Escárcega, Campeche (1,400 hectares). Conservation areas containing S. macrophylla and C. odorata populations are being maintained within these areas, in which more than 10 trees of commercial dimensions per hectare are found.
INIFAP also has a small ex situ conservation programme for some populations of the two species mentioned above, in the Ing Eduardo Sangri Serrano (The Torment) Experimental Field, in Escárcega, where ex situ conservation stands have been established and are being studied for better understanding of the genetic diversity of the species. Due to financing problems, this programme has been reduced to a minimum, and the area of the stand has not increased for the last eight years.
Research on agroforestry has been carried out in Mexico for more than 30 years. Currently, there are several national and international institutions which combine research and development projects oriented towards studying and improving the traditional systems of cultivation in the south-southeast of Mexico, and which combine traditional practices with new technology to enhance the sustainability of management.
Noteworthy among the institutions and organizations are the International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF); the National Institute for Research on Forestry Agriculture and Ranching (INIFAP), the Autonomous University of Yucatan (UADY), Southern Frontier College (ECOSUR); the Autonomous University of Quintana Roo; the Autonomous University of Chapingo (CHAPINGO); the University of Iowa, United States; and the Ford and Rockefeller Foundations which, among other foundations, have financed some of this work.
ICRAF has a regional office in Mexico, which operates in close cooperation with INIFAP, where, in conjunction with diverse national institutions and non-governmental organizations, work on the characterization of agroforestry systems of the Yucatan Peninsula and Chiapas is carried out, aimed at the development of improved methodologies, which will provide farmers with sustainable alternatives and help them to move beyond subsistence living.
Within these programmes studies have been carried out on species preferences by small farmers: C. odorata and S. macrophylla have shown to be among others, of high interest and are thus of value for regional agroforestry programmes. Many communities in the forest regions of Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo have established plantations of these two species in agroforestry systems and are interested in obtaining improved planting materials, which will lead to better results.
It should be noted that a number of agroforestry projects have been carried out over the past eight years with financing from the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada, and that the final results of these projects, including case studies and economic analysis comparing progress over time, will be published in 1997.
Work is being carried out within the framework of the project: “Determination of genetic diversity of tropical arboreal species with economic and ecological importance in Central America and the Caribbean: Implications for their conservation, use and sustainable management”. The general coordinator is Dr. Julia Wilson (1996, ITE- Scotland).
Basically, this project includes a programme of sampling in Swietenia macrophylla populations in Central America (Belize to Panama). The project is aimed at quantifying genetic variation and relating it to population characteristics. The primary tool for achieving this is the use of RAPDs. Dr. Amanda Gillies (1996) of the ITE is in charge of the study. The use of other molecular techniques is also being considered.
CATIE is in charge of the field work carried out within the framework of this project, and the person leading this activity is Carlos Navarro Pereira (1996). The counterpart in Nicaragua is the Centre for Genetic Improvement and Seed Bank, MARENA. Plans have been made for the establishment of field trials based on the collections (provenance trials), which will allow a comparison of variation in morphological characteristics and molecular markers. The information will be used to strengthen the component of breeding for resistance to Hypsipyla.
The project also supports the operations of the National Tree Seed Bank, which supports a tree improvement project based in León, Nicaragua, which is co-financed by DANIDA.
Work is being carried out in coordination with CATIE through the project: “Determination of genetic variation of tropical arboreal species with economic and ecological importance in Central America and the Caribbean: Implications for their conservation, use and sustainable management”. The general coordinator is Dr. Julia Wilson (1996, ITE- Scotland).
Basically, the project includes a programme of sampling in Swietenia macrophylla populations in Central America (Belize to Panama). The project aims at quantifying genetic variation and relating it to population characteristics. The primary tool for achieving this is the use of RAPDs. Dr. Amanda Gillies (1996) of the ITE is in charge of the study. The use of other molecular techniques is also being considered.
CATIE is in charge of the field work carried out within the framework of this project, and the person leading this activity is Carlos Navarro Pereira (1996). The counterparts in Panama are Carlos Ramírez (INRENARE) and Blas Morán (CATIE). Plans have been made for the establishment of field trials based on the collections (provenance trials), which will allow a comparison of variation in morphological characteristics and molecular markers. The information will be used to strengthen the component of breeding for resistance to Hypsipyla.
In 1986, with financial support from the FAO/UNEP project, “Conservation in situ of Forest Genetic Resources”, the former National Forestry Institute (INFOR) of Peru demarcated an area of 180 hectares containing approximately 100 mahogany trees, to serve as a seed stand for provision of seeds for future research and development programmes (Linares, 1987).
This natural stand was located within the Alexander von Humboldt National Forest and was largely formed by trees of large dimension, which were marked, measured and registered for monitoring, evaluation and seed collection.
The increasing deterioration of social, economic and political conditions, which gave rise to the terrorist insurgency problems in the country, lead to a grave weakening of the forestry administration, and to overall neglect of forest control activities in all forests, including in the von Humboldt National Forest. This situation was exploited by illegal extractors, who extracted all of the selected seed trees.
There is at the present time (1996) no established ex situ conservation programme for forest species in Peru. Between 1975 and 1980 a Forest Seed Bank, technically supported by the German Cooperation Agency (GTZ) had been operational in the country. The Seed Bank was equipped with a cold store for storing 2 to 3 metric tons of seeds, and is at present the best of the country's Seed Banks. It is located in Lima, in a former estate taken over by the Ministry of Agriculture during the Agrarian Reform process.
Although the installations still exist, the premises are not used for their original purpose, the area in which they are located has been transferred to the Ministry of Defence, to project it against squatters.
If need arose, and with appropriate inter-institutional coordination, these installations could once again be put into use for the storage of forest seeds.
This Seed Bank used to be the best organized Seed Bank in the country. It was technically supported by the GTZ. It included one seed store for the conservation of seeds at ambient temperatures (25 m2) and two seed stores for storage at between 0 and 20 degrees Celsius (35 m2), as well as a laboratory for seed analysis (Melchior, 1981). This structure was established in support of a planned project to reforest a vast, deforested area in the Selva Central region. The installations of the San Ramon Regional Forest Seed Bank are presently under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture, and are being used for other purposes. If need arose, and with appropriate inter-institutional coordination and re-fitting, these installations could once again be put into use for the storage of forest seeds.
This Seed Bank was planned, and its construction begun, with the technical and economic support of the Japanese Agency for International Cooperation (JICA) within the framework of an official agreement for cooperation in research on the regeneration of tropical forests. The project was implemented between 1980–1987, but was subsequently suspended for security reasons. The construction of the Seed Bank was left unfinished, and up to the present time it has not been concluded.
Dr. Carlos Reynel of the La Molina Agrarian University is about to finish a taxonomic revision of the Peruvian Cedrus species in collaboration with Dr. T.D. Pennington. The document is entitled: “Report on cedars and their situation in Peru: a contribution to the understanding and conservation of the Peruvian Meliaceae” (1996).
5 Information provided by Dr. Carlos Linares B., INRENA.
The International Institute of Tropical Forestry, with Headquarters in Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, has been over the past many years one of the most active institutions in the Caribbean in carrying out research on the Meliaceae. Some of the work which has been developed recently and/or is in progress, as reported by Dr. Julio C. Figueroa Colón6, carried out by the International Institute of Tropical Forestry, is outlined below:
6 Information provided by Dr. Julio Figueroa Colón, IITF, Puerto Rico, 1996
