Categories |
Code |
Definition |
Total area7 |
Total area (of country), including area under inland water bodies, but excluding offshore territorial waters. | |
Forest |
Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use. Notes: 1. Forest is determined both by the presence of trees and the absence of other predominant land uses. The trees should be able to reach a minimum height of 5 meters in situ. 2. Areas under reforestation that have not yet but are expected to reach a canopy cover of 10 percent and tree height of 5 m are included, as are temporarily unstocked areas, resulting from human intervention or natural causes that are expected to regenerate. 3. Included areas with bamboo and palms provided that height and canopy cover criteria are reached. 4. Includes forest roads, firebreaks and other small open areas; forest in national parks, nature reserves and other protected areas such as those of specific scientific, historical, cultural or spiritual interest. 5. Includes windbreaks, shelterbelt and corridors of trees with an areas of more than 0.5 ha and width of more than 20 m. 6. Included plantations primarily used for forestry or protection purposes, such as rubber-wood plantations and cork oak stands. 7. Excludes trees stands in agricultural production systems, for example in fruit plantations and agroforestry systems. The term also excludes trees in urban parks and gardens. | |
Forests with natural and/or assisted natural regeneration |
Forest of native species established through planting, seeding, natural regeneration or assisted natural regeneration. Note: may include areas with naturally regenerated trees of introduced species | |
Broadleaved forest |
BF |
Forest in which more than 75 percent of tree cover consists of broadleaved tree species. |
Coniferous forest |
CF |
Forest in which more than 75 percent of tree cover of coniferous tree species. |
Bamboo/palms formations |
OF |
Forest in which more than 75% of the tree cover consists of tree species other than coniferous or broadleaved species (e.g. tree-form species of the bamboo, palm and fern families). |
Mixed forest |
MF |
Forest in which neither coniferous nor broadleaved nor palms nor bamboos account for more than 75 percent of the tree cover. |
Forest plantations |
FP |
Forests of introduced species and in some cases of native species established through planting or seeding for production of goods and services, characterized by few species, straight tree lines and even-aged stands |
Other wooded land |
OWL |
Land not classified as “forest”, spanning more than 0.5 hectares; with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of 5-10 percent, or trees able to reach these threshold in situ; or with a combined cover of shrubs, bushes and trees above 10 percent. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use. |
Shrubs |
Sh |
Refers to vegetation types where the dominant woody elements are shrubs i.e. woody perennial plants, generally of more than 0.5 m and less than 5 m in height on maturity and without a definite crown. The height limits for trees and shrubs should be interpreted with flexibility, particularly the minimum tree and maximum shrub height, which may vary between 5 and 7 meters approximately. |
Fallow |
Fa |
It encompasses fallow where the woody vegetation is under 5 m. Height. It refers to woody vegetation deriving from the clearing of natural forest for shifting agriculture. It is part of a fallow consisting of a mosaic of various reconstitution phases. The vegetation should not reach a height of 5 m. |
Wooded grasslands (5-<10%) |
WGL |
Land where the trees cover between 5 to 10 percent of the area and their height may reach 5 m at maturity. |
Other land |
OL |
Land not classified as forest or other wooded land, as described above. Notes: Includes cultivated land, grasslands and pastures, built-on areas, barren land etc. |
Natural |
N |
Land not classified as forest or other wooded land not used by man. |
Barren land |
BL |
Barren land |
Grasslands |
GL |
Natural grasslands |
Marshland |
ML |
Marshland, swamps |
Cultivated land |
Land not classified as forest or other wooded land used by man for agriculture or pastures. | |
Annual crop |
AC |
Annual crops |
Perennial crop |
PC |
Perennial crops |
Pastures |
Pa |
Land under permanent meadows and pastures |
Built-up areas (urban or rural) |
BUA |
Built-up areas Notes: a road is considered as a distinct Land Use Section (built-up area) is wider than 15 meters (from bottom of ditch on one side to the bottom of ditch on the other side when ditches exists, otherwise the width of the road bank) and is not a forest road. |
Inland water |
IW |
Area occupied by major rivers, lakes and reservoirs. Notes: a river is considered as a land use section if the actual riverbed is more than 15 meters wide and never without water during any period of the year. |
Outside land area |
OA |
Sea, ocean or neighbouring countries. |
Tree diameter is measured over bark, at 1.3m breast height above the ground (see Figure 8) with the exception of particular cases mentioned below. Measurement may be carried out with the help of a diameter tape (tape whose diameter unit is in centimetres) or with the use of a calliper. In order to avoid overestimation of the volume and to compensate measurement errors, diameter is measured in cm and adjusted in a decreasing sense (example: 16.8 cm become 16 cm).
Figure 8. Position for diameter measurement at breast height in flat terrain.
Notes: After Dallmeier 1992.One single dotted line indicates the place for Dbh measurement. If there are two lines on the stem because of a defective tree, the appropriate place to do the measurement is thus indicated.
The calliper usually has two sides (see Figure 9):
- One side of the main axe shows a graded scale in diameter centimetres
- The other side shows a diameter category (compensated calliper). This side is mainly used in silviculture, to carry out inventories.
The side in cm will be used.
Some preventive measures must be taken into account:
• Measurement instruments are kept in a position that perpendicularly cuts the tree axe at 1.3 m, see Figure 11;
• Make sure the calliper tightly holds the stem, in order to prevent the calliper clasps from grasping without compressing the bark ;
• If the diametric tape is used, make sure it is not twisted and is well stretched around the tree in a perpendicular position to the stem. Nothing must prevent a direct contact between the tape and the bark of the tree to be measured.
•
If the calliper is used, non circular trees are to be measured in two perpendicular diameters located as close as possible to the largest and the smallest diameter in that point, the average of these two is thus retained.
Figure 10. Non circular tree measurement with calliper.
• On inclined terrain, Dbh tree measurement at 1.3 m is taken from an uphill position (see Figure 11).
Figure 11. Dbh measurement position for a tree on steep terrain.
Note: see Figure 8.
• Fork tree: Several cases exist, according to the point where the fork divides the stem.
o If the fork begins (the point where the core is divided) below 1.3 m height, each stem having the diameter required (≥20 cm in the whole plot, ≥10 cm for rectangular subplots) will be considered as a tree and will be measured. Diameter measurement of each stem will be taken at 1.3 m height.
o If the fork begins between 30 cm and 1.3 m, each stem will be considered as separate tree and will be measured. The diameter measurement will be taken at 1 meter above the fork origin.
o If the fork begins at 1.3 m or a little higher, the tree will be counted as a single tree. The diameter measurement is thus carried out below the fork intersection point, just below the bulge that could influence the Dbh.
Measurement point measurement points
Note: see Figure 8.
• Coppice: Coppice shoots originate between ground level and 1.3m on the stem of a dead or cut tree. These are considered in the same way as forked trees, except that the coppice shoots do not necessarily reach 1/3 diameter of a dead tree. Coppice shoots originating below 30 cm are measured at 1.3 m above the ground; those that originate between 30 cm and 1.3 m are measured at 1 meter above the originating point.
• Trees with an enlarged stem base or buttressed tree: diameter measurement is made at 30 cm above the enlargement or main width of buttress, if the buttress/enlargement reaches more than 90 cm height above the ground (see Figure 12).
Figure 12. Dbh measurement position for buttressed tree
Measurement point
Note: see Figure 8.
• Trees with aerial roots: diameter measurement is done at 1.3m from the limit between the stem and roots (see Figure 13).
Figure 13. Dbh measurement position for a tree with aerial roots
Measurement point
Note: see Figure 8.
• Trees with irregular stem at 1.3m: trees with bulges, wounds, hollows and branches, etc. at breast height, are to be measured just above the irregular point, there where the irregular shape does not affect the stem (Figure 14 and Figure 15).
Figure 14. Dbh measurement position for a tree with branch enlargement at 1, 3m
Note: see Figure 8
Figure 15. Dbh measurement position for other trees.
Measurement Point
Note: see Figure 8.
• Inclined trees: diameter measurement is made at 1.3 m. The stem height is measured where the stem base and the ground meet forming an angle (see Figure 16).
Figure 16. Dbh measurement position for an inclined tree.
• Fallen tree: diameter measurement is made at 1.3 m from the transition point between the stem and the root (see Figure 17).
Figure 17. Dbh position for a fallen tree.
Transition point measurement point
• Living tree lying on the ground with branches in the shape of a vertical tree. When a living tree is laying on the ground and its vertical branches (at <45° vertical position) grow from the main stem, it is recommended to determine first if the main stem is above the litter or not. If this is the case, use the same rules applied to a forked tree, if the pith of the main stem is under the litter, do not take the main stem into account and treat each one of the branches in the shape of a tree, as a separate tree. Dbh may be measured (and its height too) at 1.3 m from the ground, but not from the top of the laying stem. If the top of the laying stem forms a vertical curve, compared to the ground, treat this tree portion as if it was an individual tree, beginning at the point where the pith detaches from the litter.
• If the Dbh is not measured at 1.3 m from the ground, indicate the height where it was measured. Measure and separately indicate the branch Dbh that originates at a lower height than 1.3 m.
• In the case of stump, if the stump height is less than 1.30 m, stump diameter is measured outside bark at stump height, immediately under the cutting point (felling cut) and perpendicular to the longitudinal. If the bark is damaged or missing, a judged addition for bark is done.
Tree height measurement may be carried out by means of several instruments such as: dendrometric table, Blume-Leiss, Suunto, Haga, Blitterlich Relascope
Height measurement is made during several stages:
1. Tree distance (at 15, 20, 30 or 40 meters). To avoid measurement errors, the distance from the tree must be equivalent to the tree height
2. Observation of the tree crown
3. Observation of the tree base
4. Addition or subtraction of the two observation results according to the case: addition if the operator is standing uphill (see Figure 18a), subtraction if the operator is standing downhill in relation to the tree (see Figure 18b)
5. Slope correction
Figure 18. Tree height calculation
Note: You may find out the height of a tree (12 m for a, b, and c, and 11, 7 m for d):
a) By adding the results above and under the horizontal measurement
b) By subtracting from the total, the distance between the base of the tree and the horizontal line
c) By adding to the height of the instrument from the ground, the distance measured above the horizontal line
d) By adding the instrument measurement from the ground to the distance measured from the crown of the tree up to a point located just below on the horizontal (use the telescopic rod), the height is Ho. If D is the distance from the base of the tree to the point located below the horizontal of the top of the tree then the tree height H is calculated by applying the formula: H= √(H2+D2)
Measurement with a Blume-Leiss dendrometer.
This dendrometer is mainly composed of:
- A dioptric viewer providing two shifted images.
- Four height scales and one angle scale (the height scales correspond to a tree distance to measure at 15, 20, 30, and 40 m).
- An oscillating pendulum placed in front of the scales. The pendulum may be stopped as required with the help of a trigger or button to read the measure. A more recent model has two oscillating pendulums that may be stopped by means of two different triggers.
The instrument includes a rod with landmarks corresponding to different height scales. In order to carry out the measurements, the operator proceeds as follows:
On slight slope terrain:
1. He/she chooses the scale at 15, 20, and 30 or 40 m, the scale should approximate as much as possible to the estimated height of the stem.
2. He/she places the rod: the rod is fixed on the tree in order for the scale mark chosen is in front of him/her.
3. Distance positioning from the tree: with the help of a dioptric viewer, the operator looks at the landmark placed on the rod, in correspondence with the scale selected. If the distance from the tree is not correct, the operator will notice two shifted images. In order to achieve a correct positioning, the operator will either go forward or go backwards in order to see on his viewer two images aligned on the same line.
Figure 19. Distance from the tree. Rod use.
Note: the first figure (on the right), shows that the operator is too distant; the second one (centre) shows that the distance is correct; and the third one (left) shows that the operator is too close.
4. Observation angles: in order to measure the height of a tree, the operator tries two observation angles. The first one at the top level and a second one at the base of the tree.
5. Determining the height: after each sighting, the operator reads the measure indicated on the scale which corresponds to the landmark chosen in the rod and then adds the results of the two measurements. The result of this addition corresponds to the height of the tree.
6. For the new model, the operator will read the measurements after the second sighting because each pendulum allows the determining of a separate measurement.
On inclined terrain:
1. The operator carries out the same operations indicated above, with the exception of the height calculation. If the operator is standing uphill, the results of the two measurements are added. If the operator is standing downhill, the sighting will be directed to the base of the tree and the result will be subtracted from the one directed at the top of the tree.
2. Apply a slope coefficient to the height result.
3. Carry out the observation of a tree point located at the same height where your eye is positioned in relation to the ground).
4. Check the angle’s measurement in the appropriate scale.
5. Then check the table located on one side of the instrument, on top of which you will find a coefficient table that helps in making the necessary corrections.
6. Apply such coefficient following the formula below:
h' = h - hk in which h' = is the real height h = measured height k = coefficient correction
Height measurement with a Suunto:
1. Distance: in order to carry out this measurement, a rod is fixed to the tree in a vertical position and at operator’s eye height. The Suunto must be held firmly in vertical position.
2. Height determination: target the tree top, read the height measurement result, target the tree base, add or subtract, according to the case. If the distance between the tree and the operator is 30 or 40 m, it is convenient to repeat the measurements carried out, on a 15 or 20 m scale.
3. Slope measurement and height correction: measure the slope by targeting the point corresponding to the same height your eye is positioned in. If the Suunto does not include a scale in degrees or in percentage, make a conversion (printed text in the back, or calculator) then multiply the height you obtained by the angle cosine.
In case the estimation is simply done by direct observation, it is necessary to calibrate from the beginning of the inventory and when the stand type changes.
See separate manual.
Reference distances: such as plots and subplot dimensions, tree coordinates, all of them are horizontal distances. When the terrain is flat, these distances may be measured directly. Nevertheless, in steep terrain, horizontal distances differ from distances covered, measured in the field (see Figure 20). A correction factor must be applied to find out the distance to cover in the field in order to reach a given point. Corrections will be made for all slopes above or equal to 15 percent.
Note: The distance between two points, measured along one slope (d1) is always longer than an equivalent horizontal distance (h1). On slope terrain, the horizontal distance must be multiplied by a factor that corresponds to the inclination in order to obtain a corrected distance . Θ is the angle between the horizontal and the right A-B.d1 = h1/cosine (Θ).
1. With the help of a clinometer (or other slope measuring device) measure the slope of landmark A in direction of point B. When the slope angle has been determined, it is important to make sure that the measurement is taken along one parallel observation line to the average slope of the ground: the instrument must be located at the same height level of the target.
2. Find out the corrected distance d1 which corresponds to the desired horizontal distance, by using the slope correction table (see Table 8).
3. Go to point B and measure the slope again in direction of point A. If the result is different from the first measurement, repeat the operation
Table 8. Slope correction table.
Degree |
Factor |
Horizontal distances |
Slope | ||||||||||
% |
o |
fs |
5 |
10 |
15 |
20 |
25 |
30 |
40 |
50 |
125 |
245 |
% |
15 |
9 |
1.0112 |
5.1 |
10.1 |
15.2 |
20.2 |
25.3 |
30.3 |
40.4 |
50.6 |
126.4 |
247.7 |
15 |
20 |
11 |
1.0198 |
5.1 |
10.2 |
15.3 |
20.4 |
25.5 |
30.6 |
40.8 |
51.0 |
127.5 |
249.9 |
20 |
25 |
14 |
1.0308 |
5.2 |
10.3 |
15.5 |
20.6 |
25.8 |
30.9 |
41.2 |
51.5 |
128.8 |
252.5 |
25 |
30 |
17 |
1.0440 |
5.2 |
10.4 |
15.7 |
20.9 |
26.1 |
31.3 |
41.8 |
52.2 |
130.5 |
255.8 |
30 |
35 |
19 |
1.0595 |
5.3 |
10.6 |
15.9 |
21.2 |
26.5 |
31.8 |
42.4 |
53.0 |
132.4 |
259.6 |
35 |
40 |
22 |
1.0770 |
5.4 |
10.8 |
16.2 |
21.5 |
26.9 |
32.3 |
43.1 |
53.9 |
134.6 |
263.9 |
40 |
45 |
24 |
1.0966 |
5.5 |
11.0 |
16.4 |
21.9 |
27.4 |
32.9 |
43.9 |
54.8 |
137.1 |
268.7 |
45 |
50 |
27 |
1.1180 |
5.6 |
11.2 |
16.8 |
22.4 |
28.0 |
33.5 |
44.7 |
55.9 |
139.8 |
273.9 |
50 |
60 |
31 |
1.1662 |
5.8 |
11.7 |
17.5 |
23.3 |
29.2 |
35.0 |
46.6 |
58.3 |
145.8 |
285.7 |
60 |
70 |
35 |
1.2207 |
6.1 |
12.2 |
18.3 |
24.4 |
30.5 |
36.6 |
48.8 |
61.0 |
152.6 |
299.1 |
70 |
80 |
39 |
1.2806 |
6.4 |
12.8 |
19.2 |
25.6 |
32.0 |
38.4 |
51.2 |
64.0 |
160.1 |
313.8 |
80 |
90 |
42 |
1.3454 |
6.7 |
13.5 |
20.2 |
26.9 |
33.6 |
40.4 |
53.8 |
67.3 |
168.2 |
329.6 |
90 |
100 |
45 |
1.4142 |
7.1 |
14.1 |
21.2 |
28.3 |
35.4 |
42.4 |
56.6 |
70.7 |
176.8 |
346.5 |
100 |
110 |
48 |
1.4866 |
7.4 |
14.9 |
22.3 |
29.7 |
37.2 |
44.6 |
59.5 |
74.3 |
185.8 |
364.2 |
110 |
120 |
50 |
1.5620 |
7.8 |
15.6 |
23.4 |
31.2 |
39.1 |
46.9 |
62.5 |
78.1 |
195.3 |
382.7 |
120 |
130 |
52 |
1.6401 |
8.2 |
16.4 |
24.6 |
32.8 |
41.0 |
49.2 |
65.6 |
82.0 |
205.0 |
401.8 |
130 |
140 |
54 |
1.7205 |
8.6 |
17.2 |
25.8 |
34.4 |
43.0 |
51.6 |
68.8 |
86.0 |
215.1 |
421.5 |
140 |
150 |
56 |
1.8028 |
9.0 |
18.0 |
27.0 |
36.1 |
45.1 |
54.1 |
72.1 |
90.1 |
225.3 |
441.7 |
150 |
Note: The table provides corrected distances for some horizontal distances, in function of the slope. For instance, the distance correction for a horizontal distance of 20 meters, with a slope of 30% is 20.9 m.
For other horizontal distances, not included in the table, it is possible to get a corrected distance by multiplying the horizontal distance by the slope correction factor (scf). For instance, on a terrain with a 25 % slope, if the aim is to find the horizontal distance of 7.5 meter, it is necessary to carry out the following operation: 7.5 * 1.0308 = 7.73 meters
When the operator cannot see the position of the next point or when the slope is not constant, one or several intermediate measurements become necessary. The horizontal distance is corrected by segments.
Interviewing is very important for the data collection, and it is not easy. Good interview techniques are achieved through experience, training, and by following certain procedures. Specific advices and tools have been developed suggesting how to approach people. The following section tries to advice as well as to foresee difficult situations.
• Preparations:
• Building rapport: A good working relationship with the local people is easier to establish when the interviewer is well prepared as it shows respect and, also, underlines that it is the fieldworkers who are there to learn from the forest users on how they are using and benefiting from their local forest.
• Scheduling interviews: Respect of people’s time can be demonstrated by trying to make appointments with informants at a time and location where the interview is less likely to be disturbed. It is also important to be aware of when it is correct to end an interview. So called unscheduled interviews are also important. They may take the form of an informal dialogue with people met while walking in the forest, buying drinks in the local shop, etc.
• Interpreter: Although, by far, the best is to be able to interview in the original language, there might be occasions where the use of an interpreter is necessary. If using an interpreter, it is important to use simple language and ensure that there is a good mutual understanding about procedures and what information is needed to be obtained. It must be remembered that the role of the interpreter is to interpret, not to interview. Asking the same question in different ways (a form for cross-checking) is a way to verify that communication is working. Other hints suggested are: have the translator sit behind you, maintain eye-contact with the respondent, even though you do not understand what exactly is being said. Often mentioned as the most important, is the fact of taking time. Make sure that you understand what is being said and what it means, and that the interpreter understands what you mean. Interviewing with translators is, of necessity even slower, a more difficult and more sensitive process than if in original language.
• There are different opinions on taking notes and filling out field forms or questionnaires in front of the respondents. In semi-structured interviews many argue that one should never pull up an official-looking questionnaire form. And it is often recommended not to take notes until rapport has been built (ask permission) as people are often reluctant to talk freely if notes are taken. If you take notes explain clearly for what use they are and, after an interview, sum up what you have written. Doing visual exercises, such as RRA8, is a way where the noting or drawing is shared by all. Pre-noting some of the variables and topics to ask about in a small notebook as one gets familiar with the procedure is good practice and recommended.
• Rural women are often busy and are often shy with strangers, regardless of whether the stranger is a man or a woman. Fieldworkers should be sensitive to the constraints facing women when undertaking interviews. Preferably, a woman should interview the women thus respecting the female space.
• Avoid asking questions that are beyond the knowledge or experience of informants. Avoid giving opinions or using questions that may adversely affect the answers given. To be polite, local people will often agree with the opinions of field workers even if they do not really agree or know.
• Modifications: Be prepared to modify the question or how you ask for information as new issues emerge and old issues become less critical. Issues should be explored as they arise in the conversation.
• Use open-ended questioning style that seeks explanations and opinions rather that yes-or-no-answers. Ask, for example, “where do you collect fuelwood?” Rather than, “do you cut fuel wood from the government forest?”(IUCN, 1998). To relate it to the sample site, follow up with “Do you also collect in this part of the forest” (pointing on a map at the sample site).
• Probing and the use of non-leading ‘helper questions’: Probing is an art that is learned through careful practise and means delving into a subject. Often, topics are not easily comprehended at first; thus several questions around a sub-topic might be useful to ensure understanding (both yours and the participants’). Use non-leading helper questions such as: “Who?” “What?” “Where?” “When?” “Why?” “How?” “How many?” “How often?” and so forth. What are the implications, aims, intent, significance, or explanations of something? Ask yourself frequently – are you on the right track? (Messerschmidt, 1995). But it is also important to bear in mind that we do not need more information than the objectives have set out.
• Tract and subplot specific: It is important to always be clear about relating the question to the site or the stand. Geographic reference is possible. If people say that they collect fuelwood in the forest, but they are referring to the general forest or another part clearly outside the sample site, a follow up question can be: “Do you then also collect fuelwood in this [specific] area”? And at the same time show the area visually, describe it, etc.
• The persons being interviewed might feel a reason to hide information on some of their usual practices, or at least not talk openly about these issues, especially if he/she perceives the interviewer as being a representative of organizations or authorities that are preoccupied with hunting endangered species, entering national parks for foraging fuelwood, etc. It is therefore crucial to establish an atmosphere of understanding between the interviewer and respondent. However, if they perceive you as already aware of these practices, you will be able to learn more about the extent of these practices than if they perceive you as unaware of them. One technique is just to assume that the practices exist and directly move to the question more important for their livelihood: “In the neighbouring village, they’ve explained us that they hunt almost every week, how often do you need to go to feed your family?/or how often do you hunt?” This type of question shows that you understand the reality in which they live. Whether you can use such a direct approach depends on the relation you have established and needs careful consideration of the “mood” of the situation. In other circumstances a much more indirect approach is needed. The subject can be approached from different angles such as, for example, a conversation about food and hunting practices of children. Often, also, you might observe small things made of nwfp's while present in the community that may provide good starting points for a discussion on sensitive issues. Make use of these observations (AIDEnvironment, 1999).
• It is recommended adding a last question to the interview schedule which is: “Are there any questions that you would like to ask us?” This allows the interviewer to get information that might have been missed, puts the respondent(s) more at ease since the interview is not totally one-sided and also provides a cross-check as to whether the respondent and interviewer understood what each was getting at. If the question is out of the blue, there is a good chance that the respondent did not really understand what the interview was about and the interviewer is unlikely to have elicited an accurate picture of the respondent’s behaviour or attitudes (Molnar, 1989).
• A common mistake in interview situations is to promise respondents that they will achieve tangible profits from co-operation. Never promise anything that cannot come true. As a general rule, explain that the best effort you can make is to relay a true picture of the situation that you encounter during the study. The field crews’ task is to let the outside world know about local uses and importance of forest resources and, at best, the decision-makers will be better informed about the issues of forest resources.
This exercise identifies and provides information about the different forest user groups that can be important to schedule and plan interview with.
1. Organize a meeting with the local people (those who live close to the tract, women, men and maybe some key informants as well), and explain to them the objectives of the interview. During this brainstorming session, the group may be encouraged to work with the help of a flipchart or a similar tool.
2. List the users, or groups of people, institutions and organizations who have an interest in the forest. Ensure that external stakeholders (those not physically represented, such as logging or pharmaceutical companies) are mentioned. Can large groups of stakeholders be divided into smaller groups? Are there certain groups who depend more on forest than others, or are there groups that use the forest more frequently?
3. Rank the groups, organizations, institutions and individuals:
Draw the sampling site in the shape of a box (for example) at the centre of the paper sheet or flip chart. Explain that each stakeholder group should be represented as a circle. The size of the circle represents how big their interests to the forest are: if their interests are large, intermediate or small draw respectively a big, medium or small circle.
Arrange the stakeholders circles in or around the sampling site square to show the link existing between them and the sampling site under analysis. Discuss the rights that different stakeholders have on the forest products and what products and services they are interested in.
Figure 21: Example of Venn diagram.
Looking at aerial photos and maps will stimulate discussion with both external key informants and focus groups, as well as acting as a good icebreaker (pocket stereoscopes, magnifiers etc.). Aerial photos are known to be especially useful for recording spatial information (IUCN, 1998).
When looking together at the aerial photos or maps it is natural to start to discuss aspects of access to the sample site, land use of the area of the sample site and the surroundings. If various aerial photos from different times (years, seasons) are available, it is possible to explore the changes occurred. This will also give a chance to obtain information on landmarks, location and names, administrative boundaries, forest products and in what seasons they are available. If possible, try to mark the site on the photo with a transparency overlay. By noting on the photo, or sketching another map on another piece of paper, one can record the information that comes out of the group discussion.
On the contrary of sketched maps, aerial photographs represent a true image (however interpretation may be biased) of an area at a point in time. Adding local information to this provides very important data. This information can also be relatively easy to transform to a conventional map or to a sketch map based on the photo.
Topographic maps are indispensable, whether or not aerial photographs are available, in order to discuss and relate the sample site to a bigger geographic area.
Another exercise that opens for a lot of discussion and analysis is community mapping. In a community mapping exercise, the local people draw their community and surrounding. A facilitator might often help to start off the work by drawing one reference point, a road, etc. But during the rest of the exercise, the people should draw their own map with as little interference as possible. During the drawing exercise, there is a lot of time for discussions on ownership, what is harvested in different parts, etc. However, a drawback for this study is that the sample site, which is where we are collecting the data from, might not be physically close to the area where people live. In the context of the NFI, it will be important to focus the mapping exercise as much as possible to the sample site (tract) and to the variables related to it. What could be done is to locate the sample site on the community map, if this is possible in the scale that is made.
This technique is important for interviewing. When doing any study, the researcher must be aware of bias. If a study is biased, it means that the results do not reflect the reality because one situation or perspective was favoured. A study that fails to include the perspective of women, may be gender biased. A study that fails to probe issues deeply may be subject to a bias of “politeness” if people tell only what they think the interviewer wants to hear. Triangulation, also known as cross-checking, is a way to ensure that the results of a study are as accurate and unbiased as possible.
Dates and perceptions, for example, may be explored using different methods, each exploration building a more comprehensive understanding of complex local realities. Similarly, by using a single method with several different groups (men, women, children etc.), the different perspectives surrounding a particular issue can be revealed. Trustworthiness of data is strengthened through community verification of the findings (IIED, 1997).
Triangulation means looking at any problem or issue from as many perspectives as possible, but from at least three (Freudenberger, 1995).
1. Triangulation of the perspectives on the crew by having at least three people with different points of view (women/men, social scientist/technical specialist, insiders/outsiders, youth/elders etc.).
2. Triangulation of the perspectives of informants by ensuring that a wide range of people are interviewed and all information is verified by at least three different sources (women/men, old/young, diverse ethnic groups, etc.).
3. Triangulation of information gathering methods by addressing the same issue using several different tools (historical interviews, spatial maps, seasonal calendars, etc.). Does the direct observation or mapping exercise coincide with what people declare later during the fieldwork?
It is necessary to keep good records on where information came from and whether the interviewer is confident on its accuracy. Cross-checking can be a time-consuming process and requires patience.
Direct observation might seem obvious but is, nevertheless, very important. The field crew must be attentive and observe the sample site and surroundings noting the general land-use, facilities such as shops, schools and markets as well as housing and infrastructure. Observing these characteristics may clarify discrepancies and information gaps that occur during data collection. Additional questions can be asked to address these information gaps. Misunderstandings and contradicting information can often occur if local people have not completely understood what is being asked. This usually happens because the questions were poorly phrased, too complex, or too general from the outset. The understanding of concepts may also be unclear across languages and culture.
Direct observation can increase the accuracy and reliability of information and also reduce the number of questions that need to be asked to local people. For example, there is no need to ask whether people use wood to build houses if all the houses that can be observed are built of wood.
If the conditions and circumstances permit organizing such a walk, this is highly recommendable. A transect walk can be defined as a walk designed to follow a specific route, often across contour lines with different elevations and different ecological zones etc. If a map is a bird’s eye view of an area, a transect cuts across the same territory in order to get an idea of the diverse micro-ecological zones found in the landscape. In the context of the National inventory, it is useful to go to the centre of the sample site (tract) or, sometimes better, to a high point in the tract from which there is a good view. It is often possible to see boundary markers, different land use practices etc. Both members of the field-crew as well as local forest users should participate (and also key-informants if needed). Being able to discuss the forest and the forest products at the sample site with the forest users helps to tie the data-collection to the site.
Examples of directing questions:
- As the different land uses are crossed, questions should be asked to get a sense of what kind of tenure arrangements exist. “Is the land owned? Borrowed? Subject of conflict? Is it farmed by women? Men? Outsiders?”
- “Are there some areas that are more in demand than others? How is this land allocated?”
- “What is the significance of any fences or boundaries that are observed? Are there more in some areas than in others? Why?” (Fences are often indicators that there is a competition for land or competing uses, such as grazing and cultivation).
- “What was the use of the land here ten years ago?”
- “Where we are standing now, what are the forest products that you/your family extract?”
- “That fruit we see over there- does anyone harvest that? Who? – Do you eat that? Etc”.
- Uses of various trees should be investigated. “Who is allowed to use the trees and for what purpose? Are the rules the same for all tree species? Do they vary depending on where the tree is located?”
- “Is the group passing through any land that is borrowed?” If so, it is useful to begin to find out about borrowing practices.
- “Is the group crossing through any communally owned areas?” If so, it is an opportunity to begin to find out how they are managed.
One of the advantages of doing a transect is that people are often more willing to address sensitive issues such as land ownership patterns or conflicts, when they are away from the community. If a question is related to the things being observed, it can seem less intrusive than if the same question is asked in a more formal interview situation (Freudenberger, 1995).
In addition, a transect walk will give the field crew a chance to show what they are doing and, also, a chance to clarify queries after observations from the field measurements.
This exercise may be carried out with different focus groups to collect data on the forest products, services and their use for the different land use class in the plot. Gender issues should be considered and it may be more reliable to organize focus groups by grouping men and women separately, at least when discussing preference and importance of the products and services.
Steps and recommendations of the exercise are described below:
1) Make a list of the forest type classes (if necessary). It is important to clarify with the users whether the different forest types mean that they collect different products.
2) Ask which are the forest products and services used in the tract: “Here, where we are standing (if in the tract) – or in this area on the aerial photograph/map (point it), what are the forest products that your family (/you/the village) extract?”, “What is the local name?” "What do you use the product for?”
Let the focus group brainstorm on the products they collect and note them down on a flipchart or paper. If you feel that some are left out, you might ask some indirect questions such as: “Are there any medicinal healers here” (if yes, does this mean that they must be extracting medicine plants etc.), “What do you usually cook with? Firewood, electricity or gas?”
If different types of forest have been identified, “Do different forest products belong to specific forest type?”
3) Discuss about one product at a time, draw the product on the flipchart and systematically work on each one of them in order to gather all the necessary variables that are concerned with it.
4) If possible, an attempt must be done to find the species in the field.
I – Strict nature reserve / wilderness area. |
Protected area managed mainly for science or wilderness protection. These areas possess some outstanding ecosystems, features and/or species of flora and fauna of national scientific importance, or they are representative of particular natural areas. They often contain fragile ecosystems or life forms, areas of important biological or geological diversity, or areas of particular importance to the conservation of genetic resources. Public access is generally not permitted. Natural processes are allowed to take place in the absence of any direct human interference, tourism and recreation. Ecological processes may include natural acts that alter the ecological system or physiographic features, such as naturally occurring fires, natural succession, insect or disease outbreaks, storms, earthquakes and the like, but necessarily excluding man-induced disturbances. |
II – National Park |
Protected area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation. National parks are relatively large areas, which contain representative samples of major natural regions, features or scenery, where plant and animal species, geomorphological sites, and habitats are of special scientific, educational and recreational interest. The area is managed and developed so as to sustain recreation and educational activities on a controlled basis. The area and visitors' use are managed at a level which maintains the area in a natural or semi-natural state. |
III – Natural monument |
Protected area managed mainly for conservation of specific natural features. This category normally contains one or more natural features of outstanding national interest being protected because of their uniqueness or rarity. Size is not of great importance. The areas should be managed to remain relatively free of human disturbance, although they may have recreational and touristic value. |
IV – Habitat/species management area |
Protected area managed mainly for conservation through management intervention. The areas covered may consist of nesting areas of colonial bird species, marshes or lakes, estuaries, forest or grassland habitats, or fish spawning or seagrass feeding beds for marine animals. The production of harvestable renewable resources may play a secondary role in the management of the area. The area may require habitat manipulation (mowing, sheep or cattle grazing, etc.). |
V – Protected landscape/ seascape |
Protected areas managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation. The diversity of areas falling into this category is very large. They include those whose landscapes possess special aesthetic qualities which are a result of the interaction of man and land or water, traditional practices associated with agriculture, grazing and fishing being dominant; and those that are primarily natural areas, such as coastline, lake or river shores, hilly or mountainous terrains, managed intensively by man for recreation and tourism. |
VI – Managed resource protection area. |
Protected area managed for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems. Normally covers extensive and relatively isolated and uninhabited areas having difficult access, or regions that are relatively sparsely populated but are under considerable pressure for colonization or greater utilization. |
For this study, the participatory techniques are referred to as Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) as it involves field workers learning from local people according to the field workers’ agenda (IUCN, 1998). RRA uses a variety of tools and techniques to gather information. All its tools are designed to promote the participation of local people in both the collection and the analysis of the information. The tools approach facilitates questioning from different angles. Some are particularly helpful in addressing spatial issues, some gather more temporal information, and others help local people to analyse their situation by ranking issues or problems (Freudenberger, K, 1995)
