TABLE 1. GENERA OF BRUCHIDAE WHOSE SPECIES FEED IN SEEDS OF PROSOPIS
Genus | Geographic Range | Number of Species in Prosopis | Specificity |
Acanthoscelides | New World | 3 | Large genus with hosts mostly in Papilionoideae (Leguminosae) |
Algarobius | North America to Venezuela, Hawaii | 5 | Specific to Prosopis |
Amblycerus | New World | 4 | Large genus with many hosts. Feeds in Prosopis in West Indies, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Peru |
Bruchidius | Old World | 3 | Large genus with many hosts in Old World. Feeds in Prosopis in Israel (Southgate 1979) |
Caryedon | Old World, one tropicolitan | 1 | C. serratus primary host is Tamarindus but feeds in Prosopis in Israel and Hawaii |
Mimosestes | North America, West Indies, Venezuela, Hawaii | 4 | M. protractus specific to Prosopis, other 3 also in Acacia, Cercidium, Parkinsonia |
Neltumius | SW USA, northern Mexico | 2 | Specific to Prosopis |
Pectinibruchus | Argentina | 1 | Specific to Prosopis |
Rhipibruchus | Argentina, Chile, Uruguay | 6 | Specific to Prosopis |
Scutobruchus | Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, Galapagos, Peru | 6 | Specific to Prosopis |
TABLE 2. PROSOPIS BRUCHIDS AND THEIR HOST PLANTS
Bruchids | Host Plants | |
1. | Acanthoscelides longescutus (Pic) | Prosopis strombulifera |
2. | A. sp. J | P. caldenia |
3. | A. sp. K | P. nigra |
4. | Algarobius bottimeri Kingsolver | P. glandulosa var. glandulosa P. juliflora P. pallida P. reptans |
5. | A. prosopis (LeConte) | P. articulata P. glandulosa var. torreyana P. pubescens P. velutina |
6. | A. sp. A | Prosopis sp. |
7. | A. sp. B | P. juliflora |
8. | A. sp. C | Prosopis sp. |
9. | Amblycerus epsilon Kingsolver | P. juliflora |
10. | A. martorelli Bridwell | P. chilensis |
11. | A. piurae (Pierce) | Prosopis sp. |
12. | A. sp. L | P. juliflora |
13. | Bruchidius quinqueguttatus (01.) | P. farcta |
14. | B. seminarius (L.) | P. farcta |
15. | B. sp. | P. farcta |
16. | Caryedon serratus (01.) | P. farcta P. pallida |
17. | Mimosestes amicus (Horn) | Acacia constricta Benth. A. cymbispina Sprague & Riley A. farnesiana (L.) Willd. A. pennatula (Schlect. & Cham.) Benth. Cercidium floridum Benth. C. microphyllum (Torr.) Rose & Johnston C. praecox (Ruiz & Pav.) Harms Parkinsonia aculeata L. Prosopis juliflora P. pallida P. palmeri P. velutina |
18. | M. insularis Kingsolver & Johnson | Acacia farnesiana Prosopis juliflora P. pallida |
19. | M. nubigens (Motschulsky) | P. pallida |
20. | M. protractus (Horn) | Prosopis laevigata P. juliflora P. velutina |
21. | Neltumius arizonensis (Schaeffer) | Prosopis velutina |
22. | N. gibbithorax (Schaeffer) | Prosopis pubescens |
23. | Pectinibruchus longiscutus Kingsolver | P. alba var. panta |
24. | Rhipibruchus atratus Kingsolver | P. abbreviata P. alba P. caldenia P. flexuosa P. nigra P. torquata |
25. | R. oedipygus Kingsolver | P. kuntzei |
26. | R. picturatus (Fähraeus) | P. alba P. affinis P. caldenia P. chilensis P. elata P. ferox P. flexuosa P. humilis P. nigra P. strombulifera P. torquata |
27. | R. prosopis Kingsolver | P. alpataco P. calingastana P. chilensis P. flexuosa P. juliflora P. kuntzei P. nigra P. sericantha P. strombulifera |
28. | R. psephenopygus Kingsolver | P. alba P. alpataco P. caldenia P. chilensis P. flexuosa P. juliflora P. nigra P. torquata |
29. | R. rugicollis Kingsolver | P. kuntzei P. sericantha |
30. | Scutobruchus ceratioborus (Philippi) | P. alba P. alpataco P. caldenia P. chilensis P. flexuosa P. juliflora P. nigra P. reptans P. ruscifolia P. sericantha P. strombulifera P. torquata |
31. | S. gastoi Kingsolver | P. strombulifera P. tamarugo |
32. | S. sp. F | P. abbreviata P. affinis P. alba P. alpataco P. caldenia P. chilensis P. flexuosa P. hassleri P. nigra P. rusciflora P. strombulifera P. torquata P. vinalillo |
33. | S. sp. G | P. abbreviata P. alpataco P. argentina |
34. | S. sp. H | P. alba P. chilensis P. nigra |
35. | S. sp. I | P. ferox |
TABLE 3. NORTH AND SOUTH AMERICAN PROSOPIS SPECIES AND SPECIES OF BRUCHIDAE THAT FEED IN THEIR SEEDS
Prosopis spp. | Bruchids | |
1. | P. abbreviata | Rhipibruchus atratus Scutobruchus sp. F S. sp. G |
2. | P. affinis Sprengel | Rhipibruchus picturatus Scutobruchus sp. F |
3. | P. alba Griseb. | Rhipibruchus atratus R. picturatus R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. sp. F S. sp. H |
4. | P. alba var. panta Burk. | Pectinibruchus longiscutus |
5. | P. alpataco Phil. | Rhipibruchus prosopis R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. sp. G S. sp. F |
6. | P. argentina Burk. | S. sp. G |
7. | P. articulata S. Wats. | Algarobius prosopis |
8. | P. caldenia Burk. | Acanthoscelides sp. J Rhipibruchus atratus R. picturatus R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. sp F |
9. | P. calingastana Burk. | Rhipibruchus prosopis |
10. | P. chilensis (Mol.) Stuntz | Amblycerus martorelli Rhipibruchus picturatus R. prosopis R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. sp. F S. sp. H |
11. | P. elata (Burk.) Burk. | Rhipibruchus picturatus |
12. | P. ferox Griseb. | Rhipibruchus picturatus Scutobruchus sp. I |
13. | P. flexuosa DC. | Rhipibruchus atratus R. picturatus R. prosopis R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus |
14. | P. glandulosa var. glandulosa (Torr.) | Algarobius bottimeri |
15. | P. glandulosa var. torreyana (L. Benson) M.C. Johnst. | A. prosopis |
16. | P. hassleri Harms | Scutobruchus sp. F |
17. | P. humilis Hook. & Arn. | Rhipibruchus picturatus |
18. | P. juliflora (Swartz) DC. | Acanthoscelides sp. L Algarobius bottimeri Algarobius sp. B Amblycerus epsilon Mimosestes amicus Rhipibruchus prosopis R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus |
19. | P. Kuntzei Harms | Rhipibruchus oedipygus R. prosopis R. rugicollis |
20. | P. laevigata (H. & B. ex Willd.) M.C. Johnst. | Mimosestes protractus |
21. | P. nigra (Griseb.) Hieron | Acanthoscelides sp. K Rhipibruchus atratus R. picturatus R. prosopis R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. sp. F S. sp. H |
22. | P. pallida (H. & B. ex Willd.) H.B.K. | Algarobius bottimeri Mimosestes amicus M. insularis M. nubigens |
23. | P. palmeri S. Wats. | Mimosestes amicus |
24. | P. pubescens Benth. | Algarobius prosopis Neltumius gibbithorax |
25. | P. reptans Benth. | Algarobius bottimeri Scutobruchus ceratioborus |
26. | P. ruscifolia Griseb. | S. ceratioborus S. sp. F |
27. | P. sericantha Hook. & Arn. | Rhipibruchus prosopis R. rugicollis Scutobruchus ceratioborus |
28. | P. strombulifera (Lam.) Benth. | Acanthoscelides longescutus Rhipibruchus picturatus R. prosopis Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. gastoi S. sp. F |
29. | P. tamarugo Phil. | Scutobruchus gastoi |
30. | P. torquata (Lag.) DC. | Rhipibruchus atratus R. picturatus R. psephenopygus Scutobruchus ceratioborus S. sp. F |
31. | P. velutina Wooton | Algarobius prosopis Mimosestes amicus M. protractus Neltumius arizonensis |
32. | P. vinalillo Stuckert | Scutobruchus sp. F |
TABLE 4. POSSIBLE INSECTICIDES TO CONTROL PROSOPIS SEED-FEEDING INSECTS PRIOR TO HARVEST 1
Insect | Insecticide | Reference |
Algarobius prosopis | Orthene (O, S-dimethyl-acetyl-phosphoramide dethioate); malathion | Felker et al. 1981 |
Cythion (O, O-dimethyl-phosphorodithioate of diethyl mercaptosuccinate) | Smith & Ueckert 1974 | |
Bruchidae | Parathion; malathion | Metcalf et al. 1962; Habit et al. 1981; Koch 1969 |
Rotenone | Davidson & Peairs 1966 | |
DDT; methoxychlor | Melcalf et al. 1962; Davidson & Peairs 1966 | |
Hemiptera | Furadan 10G | Felker (Personal communication) |
Malathion; fenitrotion; DDT; carbaryl | Rupérez 1978 | |
BHC; endosulfan; monocrotophos | Saxena 1978; Léon 1974 | |
Habit et al. 1981 | ||
Cythion | Smith & Ueckert 1974. |
TABLE 5. INSECTICIDES THAT HAVE BEEN USED TO CONTROL VARIOUS STORED-PRODUCTS BRUCHIDS 1
Insecticide | Reference |
Pyrethrins, aluminum phosphide, methyl bromide, carbon disulfide, malathion | Schoonhoven 1978; Rupérez 1978; Southgate 1978; Davidson & Peairs 1966; Metcalf et al 1962 |
Mixtures of carbon disulfide and carbon tetrachloride, Bromofos, Pelitre, Piretrinas | Rupérez 1978 |
Hydrocyanic acid, mixture of carbon tetrachloride and ethylene dichloride | Southgate 1978 |
Phosphine | Hole et al. 1976 |
Pirimiphos methyl, Permethrin | Taylor & Evans 1980 |
Ethylene dibromide | National Academy of Sciences 1978 |
Gammexane, gamma BHC, sulfur Phostoxin | FAO 1980 |
TABLE 6. UNIQUE (TRADITIONAL) METHODS FOR CONTROLLING BRUCHID PESTS IN STORED SEEDS
Method | Reference | |||
A. | Whole plants or parts of plants | |||
Azadirachta indica | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(neem) kernels | Schmutterer 1981 | |||
Acorus calamus | Pandey et al. 1976 | |||
(powder of rhizomes) | ||||
Capsicum | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(pepper, chilies) | ||||
Cactus spp. | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(powdered) | ||||
Annona reticulata | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(custard apple seed powder) | ||||
Mundulea sericea | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(stem bark powder) | ||||
Derris elliptica | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(derris) | ||||
Nicotiana tabacum | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(tobacco) | ||||
Thevetia nerifolia | Pandey et al. 1976 | |||
(powder of drupes) | ||||
Adhatoda vasica | Pandey et al. 1976 | |||
(leaf powder) | ||||
Piper nigrum | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(black pepper) | Schoonhoven, 1978 | |||
Madhuca latifolia | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(mahua) | ||||
Ipomoea cornea | Pandey et al. 1976 | |||
(leaf powder) | ||||
B. | Plant Extracts | |||
Azadirachta indica | Golob & Webley 1980; Pandey et al. 1976 | |||
(oil) | ||||
Allium sativum & A. cepa | Pandey et al. 1976 | |||
(garlic & onion) | ||||
Acorus calamus | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(oil) | ||||
Derris elliptica | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(derris) | ||||
Pogostemon heyneanus | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(patchouli oil) | ||||
Nigella sativa | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(black cumin) | ||||
Phaseolus vulgaris | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
(bean) | ||||
Piper nigrum | Su 1977 | |||
(black pepper) | ||||
Curcuma longa | Su et al. 1982 | |||
(turmeric) | ||||
Citrus oils | Su et al. 1972 a, b; Su 1977 | |||
C. | Oils | |||
Peanut (groundnut) | Golob & Webley 1980; Singh et al. 1978; Varma & Pandey 1978 | |||
Castor | Golob & Webley 1980; Ebeling 1971 | |||
Palm kernel | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Coconut | Golob & Webley 1980; Varma & Pandey 1978 | |||
Mustard | Golob & Webley 1980; Varma & Pandey 1978 | |||
Gingelly (Sesame) | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Sunflower | Golob & Webley 1980; Varma & Pandey 1978 | |||
Palm | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Rapeseed | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Cottonseed | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Honge | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Neem | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Sour orange | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Sesame (Gingelly) | Varma & Pandey 1978 | |||
Animal fat | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
D. | Ashes | |||
Wood ashes | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Tamarind ashes | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
E. | Minerals | |||
Sand | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Silica | Golob & Webley 1980; Schoonhoven 1978 | |||
Aluminum silicate (synthetic) | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Diatomite | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Termite mound soil | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Kaolin and lime | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Kaolin (activated & unactivated) | Ebeling 1971 | |||
Common salt | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Attapulgite dusts | Golob & Webley 1980; Varma et al. 1976 | |||
Bentonite | Schoonhoven 1978 | |||
Magnesium carbonate | Schoonhoven 1978 | |||
F. | Miscellaneous | |||
Sawdust | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Fire | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Smoke | Golob & Webley 1980 | |||
Controlled atmosphere storage | Kamel 1980; Burrel 1980 |
TABLE 7. POTENTIAL BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENTS FOR BRUCHIDS AND OTHER PESTS OF PROSOPIS
Insect | Reference | |
Pteromalidae | ||
Dibrachys cavus (Walker) | Koch & Campos 1978; Habit et al. 1981 | |
Trichogrammatidae | ||
Trichogramma spp. | Conway 1980; Forister 1970 | |
Torymidae | ||
Perissocentrus sp. | Koch & Campos 1978; Habit et al. 1981 | |
Eulophidae | ||
Horismenus productus (Ashmead) | Conway 1980 | |
Hyssopus evetriae (Girault) | Center 1971; Center & Johnson 1976 | |
Tetrastichus dolosus Gahan | Center 1971; Center & Johnson 1976 | |
Eurytomidae | ||
Eurytoma sp. | Center 1971; Center & Johnson 1976 | |
Braconidae | ||
Bracon hebetor Say | Koch & Campos 1978; Habit et al. 1981 | |
Heterospilus prosopidis Viereck | Conway 1980; Center 1971; Forister 1970; Center & Johnson 1976 | |
Urosigalphus bruchi Crawford | Conway 1980; Center 1971; Forister 1970; Center & Johnson 1976 | |
Acari | ||
Pyemotidae | ||
Pyemotes spp. (=Pediculoides) National Academy of Sciences 1978 |
TABLE 8. PRIORITY RESEARCH NEEDS FOR CONTROLLING
SEED-INFESTING INSECTS OF PROSOPIS
(listed in order of importance)
1. | Intensive studies of the life histories and ecology of the seed-infesting insects of Prosopis. This would include the damage inflicted by each species and a census of their natural enemies. |
2. | Intensive studies of methods of control of seed-feeding insects of Prosopis. Initially this would probably include only the use of synthetic organic insecticides during the pre-harvest (field) phase and the storage phase. |
3. | Intensive studies to determine host preferences of seed-infesting insects of Prosopis throughout its range in the New World. |
4. | Intensive taxonomic studies of bruchid beetles that feed in Prosopis spp. seeds. This would be done in conjunction with numbers 1 and 3. |
5. | Laboratory studies to determine host-switching capabilities of Prosopis bruchids. |
6. | Studies of predators, parasites and diseases of seed-infesting insects of Prosopis throughout its range in the New World to establish biological control methods. |
7. | Study of traditional methods of controlling seed-infesting insects in storage (Table 6) for possible future adoption and introduction into the technology of New World countries. |
8. | Studies to develop a programme of Integrated Pest Management for seed-infesting insects of Prosopis. |