UNITED KINGDOM (continue)

8. OWNERSHIP, ADMINISTRATION, MANAGEMENT AND INVESTIGATION¹

¹ Based largely on Gaudet (1974), Govt. of the UK (1978), Parton (1978), Tombleson (1978, 1982), information received by EIFAC from the UK in 1979, UK/EIFAC (1979), Aptekman (1979), Britain (1981, 1982), personal communications from B. Stott (1983) and R. Williamson (1983), and information furnished to EIFAC by J.W. Banks (1990). Some of the systems used in the UK have changed several times during this almost 20-year period

8.1 Ownership, Availability and Licensing

Ownership of fisheries in the UK is divided between the private and public sectors: the former being connected with most of the natural waters, and the latter with tidal and navigable waters, reservoirs and drainage channels.

8.1.1 England and Wales

Generally speaking, in England and Wales the right of fishing in waters which are tidal and navigable is enjoyed by all citizens, subject, of course, to the fact that licenses are necessary for salmonids, freshwater fish and eel, but not marine species. However, some ancient grants of tidal fisheries to private persons still exist, and can be bought or sold as freehold or leasehold properties (Hardy, 1980). Commercial fishing is carried on mainly in waters where the right of fishing is public. In fresh or non-tidal waters, the fishing rights are presumed to belong to the owner of the soil thereunder. One may own all of the right if one owns both banks or the rights out to mid-stream if one owns only one bank. The riparian owner of a fishery may, however, sell or lease the fishing rights separately from the land but cannot abandon them through non-use.

There is some eel catching in the rivers, and commercial netting for salmon and sea trout in estuaries and on the coast. However, most of the fishing in fresh waters is angling, i.e., recreational.

With respect to the availability of inland waters for recreational fishing, Tombleson (1978) offers the following broad classification: (i) privately owned fisheries, owned by or leased to angling clubs, with no public right of navigation; (ii) publicly owned fisheries such as canals, reservoirs and drainage channels, where rights of navigation and public access are involved and are mostly leased as fisheries to angling clubs, and (iii) privately owned fisheries on waters having a public right of navigation. The type first named constitutes the largest section; the fisheries are mainly on flowing water but also include natural lakes and ponds and gravel pits.

The local administration of fisheries in England and Wales lies with the National Rivers Authority (see section 8.2.1) which is required to regulate fisheries by a system of licenses. The Authority has the power to impose different duties on different types of fishing instruments and to grant exemptions from duty. However, a fishing license does not give a holder a right to fish at a time or in a place where he is not otherwise entitled to fish.

8.1.2 Scotland

The situation differs in Scotland. Here, all the salmon and sea trout fisheries are a separate heritable estate or the subject of proprietorship separate from land ownership. The salmon and sea trout fisheries that do not belong to private persons (or corporate bodies) belong to the Crown; although owned by the State they are not public fisheries and can be let to private individuals or corporate bodies. Private ownership of salmon and sea trout fisheries in Scotland extends to all rivers and lakes and to the sea within three miles of shore. (There are exceptions in the Orkney and Shetland Islands where some of the land is under “udal” tenure and the right of salmon fishing is held with ownership of the adjacent land.) Aside from rod fishing for these fish, various commercial methods are used (see section 7.1.1).

All other freshwater fisheries in Scotland, including those for brown trout, appertain to the land. The fisheries cannot be sold separately from the adjacent land although they can be let independently of it. In non-tidal fresh waters, the right to fish for freshwater fish is private except that there is (generally) a public right to fish for brown trout in navigable and tidal waters.

With respect to the general availability of recreational fisheries in Scotland, the following classification is offered by Jamieson (1978): (i) private, retained only for the owners and their guests; (ii) leased, both short or long-term, and constituting the bulk of the good salmon fishing; (iii) hotel fisheries, and (iv) permit fisheries, widespread, administered by diverse agencies and considered the open market fishery with fewest restraints.

There is no licensing system for either sport or commercial fishing in the inland waters of Scotland.

8.1.3 Northern Ireland

Fishing rights in Northern Ireland are normally attached to soil over which water lies or flows. However, the title to a fishery may be separated from the soil and vested in a separate owner.

All inland fisheries are in private ownership of some kind, and there is no right of public fishing on inland waters. Fishing rights are included in sporting rights attached to the land. This has led to a complex situation as there is a fragmentation of ownership among various landowners. There can be difficulties in acquiring fishing rights, and often an owner will not take the trouble to establish his title.

In practice, much of the best fishing water in Northern Ireland, and in particular, the best rivers, are under the control of angling clubs or syndicates and reserved for private use. Since 1967/68, the Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland (DANI) has undertaken an angling development plan to provide reasonable trout fishing facilities for public use. DANI did not compete with angling clubs for the acquisition of waters, but acquired suitable coarse fish lakes and developed them into trout fisheries. About 1 275 ha of game fishing lakes, 60 km of game fishing river and 15 500 ha of mixed game and lake fishing were available to the public by 1979. In 1990, over 60 public angling waters provided both game and coarse fishing, and salmon rivers were accessible to DANI permit holders.

Throughout Northern Ireland, there is a licensing system which applies to public and private waters. The Fisheries Conservancy Board issues rod licenses which are required for fishing in both private and public waters, the Foyle Fisheries Commission issues licenses for fisherman fishing in the Foyle area, and the DANI issues permits which allow an angler to fish the Department's waters (see section 8.2.3). Anglers under 16 who fish exclusively for coarse fish do not require a license. In the Conservancy area, a game fishing rod license is valid for both game and coarse fishing, and the holder of a license issued in one area may have it endorsed for the other area by paying an extra charge.

8.2 Administration and Management

8.2.1 England and Wales

(i) Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (MAFF). This Ministry through its Department of Fisheries has overall responsibility for all salmon and inland fishery matters, but the detailed administration and management of the fisheries is performed by the National Rivers Authority (see below). MAFF's Fisheries Division 1 is the unit concerned with aspects of inland fisheries. The Minister of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food has the duty, jointly with the Secretary of State for the Environment (DOE) to promote a national water resources policy and it is his duty to secure the effective execution of that policy as it is related to inland and coastal waters.

(ii) The Secretary of State for the Environment has the duty to secure the effective execution of as much of the policy as relates to the restoration of wholesomeness of rivers and other inland waters, and the use of water for recreation.

(iii) National Rivers Authority (NRA). Following the Water Act of 1989 the National Rivers Authority came into being. It was formed by amalgamating those portions of the ten Regional Water Authorities which dealt with rivers, water resources and inland waters generally. The other functions of the Water Authorities, concerned with water supply and sewage treatment and disposal, were left in the hands of ten newly formed private companies corresponding in area to the ten Water Authorities which they replaced¹.

¹ The fishery problems of a number of these Water Authorities, which were carried over to the National River Authority, are well covered in accounts to be found in van Densen, Steinmetz, and Hughes (1990)

The NRA is also divided for administrative purposes into ten regions whose boundaries correspond closely to those of the ten private Water Companies.

The NRA is concerned with all aspects of water resource management, flood defence, land drainage, effluent discharge quality, fisheries, water based recreation, navigation and wildlife conservation on rivers. The fisheries duties are broadly defined as the maintenance, improvement and development of all fisheries on inland waters. There are also certain responsibilities for the management of migratory salmonid fisheries along the coast.

The NRA includes representation of all its interests on a national Board. There are also regional boards with separate committees for rivers, flood defence and fisheries. The national Board is appointed by the Secretary of State for the Environment and the Secretary of State for Wales.

In addition to its Fisheries Advisory Committee each region may also appoint local fishery committees. They have the power to require fishing licences even on private waters, and approximately fifty per cent of their revenue for fishery expenditure is derived from this source. The remainder being at present provided by the Government through grant-in-aid to the NRA as a whole.

Both public and privately owned inland fisheries (commercial and sport) are subject to the general provisions of the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries Act 1975 relating to illegal methods of fishing, seasons, river obstruction, etc., and to byelaws laid down by the NRA. Such byelaws may regulate the taking of fish, methods, numbers and size limits, use of nets, etc. Byelaws proposed by the Authority are, however, subject to Ministerial approval.

(iv) In addition to the above, there are a large number of other bodies (national, regional and local), which have a share in one or more aspects of water use or management including some aspects of fisheries (see section 8.4).

8.2.2 Scotland

(i) The Department of Agriculture and Fisheries for Scotland (DAFS), through its Fisheries Division, is responsible for all central fisheries administration, utilizing various services. Technical advice is provided by an Inspector of Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries for Scotland.

(ii) Salmon Fishery District Boards. Within their individual districts, on virtually all the important salmon rivers, these District Boards are responsible for protection and improvement of their salmon and sea trout fisheries, especially through the enforcement of anti-poaching measures, closing times, and the stocking of rivers. The laws currently administered are the Salmon Fisheries (Scotland) Acts of 1862 and 1868 which established a system of District Boards consisting of representatives of proprietors of salmon fisheries in each district; the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries (Protection) (Scotland) Act 1951 which amended and strengthened the law with respect to protection of salmon and freshwater fisheries, and the Salmon Act of 1986 which redefined the areas of the Salmon Fishery Districts and further increased their powers and administrative duties.

(iii) The North of Scotland Hydro-Electric Board is concerned with measures to preserve salmon and trout fisheries in waters affected by hydroelectric development. The Board also undertakes some research projects. It receives advice from an independent Fisheries Committee appointed by the Secretary of State. The Forestry Commission encourages angling in certain lakes within its forests.

8.2.3 Northern Ireland

The Secretary of State for Northern Ireland is responsible to the Parliament of the UK for services such as agriculture, including fisheries and the environment.

The legislation which governs fishing in Northern Ireland is the Fisheries Act (NI) 1966 and the Foyle Fisheries Act (NI) 1952.

(i) The Department of Agriculture for Northern Ireland (DANI) and the Fisheries Conservancy Board share the general management of fisheries (aside from Foyle). The Board is responsible for the conservation and protection of the country's salmon and inland fisheries.

(ii) The Foyle Fisheries Commission, established in 1952 to provide for the management, protection and improvement of fisheries in the Foyle area, administers the Foyle Catchment which is situated in both Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.

8.3 Scientific and Research Services

A Fisheries Research and Development Board is responsible for advising the fishery units within MAFF and DAFS on research needs and priorities, and the Controller of Fisheries Research is responsible for coordinating fishery research for England, Wales and Scotland.

8.3.1 England and Wales

(i) The Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food has several units concerned with investigation on or related to inland fisheries. (a) The Inland and Coastal Fisheries Group in the Directorate of Fisheries at Lowestoft carries out investigations on biological problems including those of diadromous and other fishes. Its officers provide advice and technical information to the public and other bodies on fishery problems; (b) Studies on river pollution and toxic substances are the responsibility of an Aquatic Environmental Pollution unit at the Ministry's laboratory at Burnham-on-Crouch; (c) The Fish Diseases Laboratory at Weymouth, part of the Ministry's Fish Cultivation Unit, carries out investigations into fish pathology and parasitology and provides advice to MAFF Fisheries Division, fish farmers, the National Rivers Authority and the public.

(ii) The Institute of Freshwater Ecology (IFE), a unit within the National Environment Research Council (NERC), partly financed by Government funds, has a Headquarters Laboratory at Windermere. Its activities cover the entire field of limnology as well as work on fish and fisheries. (The old and well known Freshwater Biological Association (FBA) became a part of IFE in 1989.)

8.3.2 Scotland

Scientific and research services for salmon and freshwater fisheries in Scotland are under the direction of DAFS's Director of Fisheries Research at Aberdeen. Freshwater research is carried out at the Freshwater Fisheries Laboratory at Pitlochry.

8.3.3 Northern Ireland

DANI operates a Fish Research Laboratory and a Freshwater Biological Investigation Unit, and has a long-term research project on the biology of the Atlantic salmon.

8.4 Other Agencies

In addition to the legislative authorities described above, there are a large number of groups in the UK involved directly with inland fisheries or with related concerns such as water resources, amenity, the environment, or recreation. Some of these are listed below.

(i) Statutory National: The Welsh Office, Department of the Environment (recreation), Sports Council, British Waterways Board (BWB) (canals and waterways including provision of facilities for recreational fishing), Inland Waterways Amenity Advisory Council (advises the BWB and Secretary of State for the Environment on recreation, including fishing), British Tourist Board, Countryside Commission. (Two other bodies have been eliminated in recent years: the National Water Council has been replaced by the Water Authorities Association, and the Water Space Amenity Commission disbanded.)

(ii) Voluntary National: National Angler's Council (representing the whole of the sport of angling), National Federation of Anglers (coarse fishing), Salmon and Trout Association (game fishing), Angler's Cooperative Association, National Association of Specimen Groups, British Field Sport Society, Institute of Fisheries Management (a professional organization for the subject), Welsh Angler's Council, Scottish Angler's Association, Scottish Salmon Angling Association, Scottish National Angling Club's Association, Ulster Provincial Council of the Irish Federation of Sea Anglers, Ulster Coarse Angling Federation, and Ulster Angling Federation.

(iii) Other Regional Statutory: Northern Sports Council for Sport and Recreation, North West Council for Sport and Recreation, Yorkshire and Humberside Council for Sport and Recreation, East Midland Regional Council for Sport and Recreation, West Midlands Council for Sport and Recreation, Eastern Council for Sport and Recreation, and Greater London and South East Council for Sport and Recreation.

(iv) Universities. Many universities in the UK perform considerable research on inland fishery biology or related aspects such as fishery economics, ichthyology and limnology.

8.5 Water Pollution Research and Control

Responsibility for pollution control is shared by various central governmental departments, local and regional water authorities, and statutory agencies. The Water Act of 1989 which applies to England, Scotland, and Wales provides a wide basis for greater protection of waters. An independent standing Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution advises the Government on national and international matters concerning the pollution of the environment, in adequacy of research, and future dangers to the environment.

In England and Wales, the Secretary of State for the Environment has a coordinating role concerning pollution matters as a whole exercised through a Central Directorate on environmental pollution within his Department, while an independent Standing Commission on Energy and Environment provides the Government with advice on the interaction of energy policies to the environment. Water research in England and Wales is undertaken by the Water Research Centre (WR), under contracts from the National Rivers Authority and the Department of the Environment.

The National Rivers Authority in England and Wales, the River Purification Boards and Island Councils in Scotland, and the Department of Environment for Northern Ireland are responsible for control of water pollution. There is also a Scottish River Purification Advisory Committee which advises the Secretary of State on pollution matters.

9. STATE OF THE FISHERY

9.1 Yield

Estimates of fish production have been made in a number of streams and natural lakes in the UK. (The term “production” as used here is that of lvlev (1945), expressed by Le Cren (1972) as “… the total elaboration of fish flesh in a given time regardless of its ultimate fate and whether it survives to the end of that time”. It is not synonymous with the “yield” to the fisherman.) Studies of salmonids in streams of England and Scotland cited by Le Cren (1972) range from a production of 2.6 to 13 g/m²/year (26 to 130 kg/ha/year). With respect to his own studies in English streams, Le Cren (1969) noted that the annua production of brown trout was similar in both Highland streams with soft water and Lowland streams with high calcium content, but that the populations were sparser in the lowlands. With respect to coarse fish production in English streams, Mann (1971) made estimates of 2.3–43 g/m²/year (23–430 kg/ha/year) for the bullhead (Cottus gobio), 9.0 g/m²/year (90 kg/ha/year) for the roach (Rutilus rutilus), and 29 g/m²/year (290 kg/ha/year) for the bleak (Alburnus alburnus).

Le Cren (1972) also provided estimates of production in English lakes of brown trout (0.75 g/m²/year or 7.5 kg/ha/year in Three Dubs, Tarn), European perch (16 and 20 g/m²/year or 160 and 200 kg/ha/year in Windermere), and pike (0.24–0.67 g/m²/year or 2.4–6.7 kg/ha/year in Windermere).

Mann (1972) also cited studies in the Thames, midway between Oxford and London showing a total annual production of 2 000 kg/ha (about 200 Kcal/m²). About 70 percent was attributable to fish in their first year, but he considered that with skillful management, a yield of 500 kg/ha/year could be obtained. (Such yields in this type of water could only be described as phenomenal, see below.)

It is important to note that although some very high levels of production have been found in some English streams, there is indeed large contribution from young stages, and that the dominant species such as the bullhead (in chalk streams) and the bleak (in the Thames) are not of interest to fishermen.

In Northern Ireland, some estimates of young salmon production in various streams were listed by Elson (1975) as follows: 3.95 g/m²/year (39.5 kg/ha/year) in the Bann; and in the Foyle system 9.16 g/m²/year (91.6 kg/ha/year) in the Granagh, and 1.69 g/m²/year (16.9 kg/ha/year) in the Roe.

Of greater interest to the fishermen is his own “yield” or “harvest” from the waters. The natural yield varies decidedly: it is quite high in some of the lowland lakes and streams and extremely low in some of the infertile Highland tarns. Intermediate between these are waters like Loch Leven. In 1960 it produced a catch of 86 000 trout, but between 1923 and 1972 it averaged about 40 000 fish weighing 18 t, i.e., a yield of about 13.6 kg/ha/year. Since 1968, the catch has declined to consistently below 20 000 fish annually (A. Holden, personal communication, 1979). Frost and Brown (1967) list some yields from man-made lakes in the British lsles ranging from about 0.45 to 61.6 kg/ha/year. The yield from UK's largest lake, Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland, considering only the catch of eel, trout, coregonids, pike, bream and perch appears to be about 23 kg/ha/year (Milway, 1970). Tesch (1977) states that the yield in Lough Neagh from eel alone is about 20 kg/ha/year. Studies in 1976 from the Piddle catchment in Dorset indicated a yield of silver eel of 52 kg/ha/year in 1976 and 49 kg/ha/year in 1977 (MAFF, Dir. of Fish., 1982).

The yield to the angler obviously rests to a large extent upon the species taken, e.g., the highly productive bullhead is fished by children, not serious anglers. In many waters the yield to the angler is largely dependent upon the local angling regulations and the amount and type of stocking. Cane (1980) points out that data for 22 reservoir fisheries in England and Wales, each of which yielded over 10 000 fish in 1978, indicated trout catches ranging from 30 to 1 240 fish/ha. “The smaller reservoirs yielded the highest catch rates relative to area, a reflection not necessarily of greater maintained fish density but rather of the increased frequency of stocking necessary to support high angling demand”. As heavy stocking of catchable trout in reservoirs increases, their yield will also increase.

With respect to coarse fisheries, the River Trent had a mean annual catch rate (by angling) of 114 g/man/hour as compared with the Ouse, 58 g/man/hour, and Severn, 82–176 g/man/hour (Cowx, 1990). As has been pointed out by Cowx (1990), however, the angles' satisfaction may not rest completely on numercial yield, but upon the principal species caught.

9.2 Factors Affecting the Fishery

Although the overall area of inland water within the UK is relatively small, almost all of the nation was originally endowed with many excellent fishing rivers, and in some areas, many natural lakes and tarns. Even in the driest areas of the UK, rain falls on almost half the days of the year, and on average the wettest areas have less than 100 dry days annually. Since the response of streamflow to rain is rapid, the streams generally maintain good flows, and if not polluted, almost any water in the country can still support populations of salmonids. (The uneven population distribution and east-west rainfall gradient does mean, however, that some rural rivers and many urban rivers have high demands.)

Today, these waters range from the rushing salmon streams of Scotland and Wales, to small Highland becks with abundant populations of small brown trout and to the famed chalk streams of southern England with their large and wily trout. They range from the deep lochs and clear tarns of Scotland to the well stocked reservoirs of England. In addition, there is an abundance of quiet waters in the canals and broads where coarse fishing is paramount.

Although the variety of fishing is limited, it far exceeds that of more northern European countries, and includes the “finest” of game fishes, especially salmon and trout, as well as the less appreciated char and grayling. Coregonids are very limited, being important only in Lough Neagh. Perch, pike, eel and a good supply of cyprinids for coarse fishing generally completes the picture. There are, of course, pressures to introduce exotic fishes either for sport or fish culture and a number have been brought into the country, among them the pike-perch, American brook trout, grass carp and Pacific coho salmon.

The water quality, based on acid rocks, of Highland Britain is generally oligotrophic and of low productivity. Its streams are usually fast flowing and support only populations of small brown trout. Balanced against these are the more productive waters of Lowland Britain for both coarse and game fish, and even the low nutrient status of Highland streams is often well compensated for through the return of migratory salmonids nourished in the rich marine waters off Britain. Similarly, although the growing season decreases from south to north, a generally mild climate persists even in the north.

Population density in England is very high (similar to that in the Benelux countries), more moderate in Wales and Northern Ireland, and relatively light in Scotland. This can encourage heavy fishing in some areas, facilitated by the good system of public transportation and automobile roads, which, within the legally set limits, permits year-round fishing. (In general, trout fishing is not allowed between 1 October and 28 February for trout or between 1 November and 31 January for salmon. Coarse fishing is not permitted between 15 March and 15 June in most of England and Wales, but has no closed season in Northern Ireland.)

The average annual runoff per caput is very high in Scotland, 13 787 m³ and above the European average in Northern Ireland, 5 416 m³. However, it is only 992 m³ in England and Wales, 2 167 m³ in Great Britain, and 2 257 m³ in the United Kingdom as a whole (based on Table 2 and hydrological data in section 5). The situation in Great Britain is particularly aggravated by the fact that about 90 percent of its population lives where only about one-half the total runoff is available. With respect to the dilution of polluting effluents, this has posed serious problems.

It might be natural to assume that a country so densely populated, industrialized and intensely cultivated as is the UK, would have widespread water pollution. Such a misleading conclusion deserves correction, best shown by three tables (21, 22, 23). The first table shows the situation during the 1958–75 period in England and Wales and the 1968–74 period in Scotland. It will be noted that the situation (using the chemical criteria selected by the surveyors) has gradually improved. (See 5.2 in Walling and Webb (1981) for the chemical classification used in pollution surveys in the UK.) Many publications, especially “official” ones stress surveys which indicate improvement in the quality of UK's waters, but not all authors agree. For example, Smith (1972) points out that the Department of the Environment's 1971 report on the extent of water pollution in England and Wales in 1958 and 1970 partly conceals the real extent of pollution by using river length rather than volume of discharge as the basic criterion in estimating improvement. Thus, small headwater streams are given as much weight as the lower reaches of large river systems which are more polluted. He felt that the overall situation in 1970 remained essentially similar to that of 1958. It may be noted that the need to related the quality and the magnitude of flow of polluted rivers has, indeed, been recognized in later national surveys of England and Wales. Table 5.4 in Walling and Webb (1981), based on a DOE survey in 1975, shows the more frequent occurrence of poor quality and grossly polluted reaches with frequent occurrence of poor quality and grossly polluted reaches with increasing mean discharge. Two other critics, Johnson and Brown (1976) thought that the water quality of England and Wales had not appreciably improved or worsened in the past decade, and that one of the expressed aims that “… making the rivers clean enough to restore high-quality fishing is recognized to be a desirable but quite distant goal”.

Table 21

Total lengths of all rivers in various chemical classes in different surveys in Great Britain

^a Based on lengths common for both surveys

Source: Table 5.5 in Walling and Webb (1981)

The second table (22) presents some statistics covering more detailed analyses of river pollution in both Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The distinction between pollution in tidal and non-tidal sections as well as between that in the three major political sub-divisions of the UK is shown here.

Table 22

Chemical classes of different types of rivers in the UK

^a Fairly good category used in Scottish surveys

^b Northern Ireland survey is based on a more recent chemical classification

Source: Table 5.3 in Walling and Webb (1981)

The third table (23) illustrates the situation with respect to water quality in rivers and canals in Scotland in 1974, 1980 and 1985.

Table 23

River and canal quality (chemical classification) in Scotland, 1974, 1980 and 1985^a (in km)

^a Excludes Orkney, Shetland and Western Isles

Source: Table 16.19 in Scotland (1990)

From these tables and other evidence, one can generally say that: (i) the tidal reaches of many British rivers are frequently classed as polluted: (ii) there is usually a general reduction in water quality in a river from source to mouth; (iii) industrial and urban conurbations are greater sources of pollution than rural areas; (iv) there has been a reduction in the length of highly or grossly polluted river basins, but (v) also a diminution in the extent of high quality river areas. Despite these changes, the great majority of the rivers in the UK are considered unpolluted, and it is generally considered that these rivers are in far better shape than they were during and at any time after the Industrial Revolution. As Britain (1990) says, there has been a general improvement in water quality in the UK since the 1950s, and a comprehensive survey of 1985 classified 90 percent of river lengths in England and Wales as of “good” or “fair” quality, i.e., among other things capable of supporting game or coarse fish populations and suitable for drinking water.

The great improvement in the water quality of the tidal Thames has already been described (section 5.1); its pollution levels have been reduced decidedly over those in the 1950s and 1960s and salmon have been found in this river as far upstream as Oxford. Similarly, in the Trent, a first class mixed fishery for coarse fish, there have been regular sightings of salmon over the last few years. Some have even returned to the Clyde after an absence of over 80 years. Despite such improvements, the situation resulting from the combined effect of sewage and industrial wastes in lowering the concentration of dissolved oxygen and in raising that of poisons is still cause for concern. Half of the fish kills in Great Britain have been attributed to low oxygen levels resulting from sewage and agricultural waste discharges.

As of now, acidified waters are a minor problem.

The use of water for irrigation in a country with abundant rain-fall has been so small that it has rarely affected fisheries; circa 1972, only 0.036 percent of the licensed water abstractions in England and Wales were used for agriculture. (In some areas and at certain times, there are nevertheless rather heavy demands for irrigation water, e.g., if the potential demand for spray irrigation were met, it would produce virtually zero flow in the rivers of the Great Ouse Basin during a dry summer (Ministry of Housing and Local Government, 1960).) The heavy emphasis on land drainage to convey water away as quickly as possible, has, however, affected large areas of good fishing. It has lowered levels, altered flows, eliminated pools and riffles, removed cover, made uniform channels, and, in some cases, created erosion. The Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981) has set out the need for consultation between land drainage engineers and those responsible for fisheries. The requirements of wildlife and fishery conservation are increasingly being taken into account in the drainage works carried out by the National Rivers Authority.

Overall, the British Isles are not well endowed for large-scale production of hydroelectric power. There are sites with favourable climate and terrain, but catchment areas are small, most such areas are distant from centres of population, and formerly abundant supplies of coal have also delayed hydroelectric use in Britain. Thus, the effect of hydroelectric development has been minimal except in some areas in Scotland and northern Wales where steeper gradients, greater rainfall, impermeable rocks, and recent employment of pumped storage, have promoted its use. Here, anadromous fishes have been affected through barriers to their upstream migration, and difficulties of working their way downstream and through turbines. Fortunately, laws concerning hydroelectric development have demanded attention to salvation of fish stocks, resulting in construction of fishpasses, installation of fish-screens and provision of instream or compensation water.

The majority of the freshwater fisheries in the UK are under private ownership (see section 8.1) and use of many of the first quality trout and salmon streams is, as has been noted, a very expensive luxury. Good trout fishing can be found in Scotland, however, at very moderate cost and sometimes without charge, and reservoir fishing in England has brought trout fishing for large fish within reach of the average angler. In the UK as a whole, there are good opportunities for public coarse fishing in many streams and in the extensive canal system. In fact, of all water uses in England and Wales, canalization and the more recent reservoir development (often in drainage basins which originally provided little fishing) may have been the most useful to fishermen seeking low cost and available angling. Membership in Britain's many fishing clubs, in England alone there are probably over 2 000, some with extremely large memberships, also make angling possible for many people through their acquisition of fishing rights through ownership or lease.

The dominance of sport fishing over commercial fishing has long been apparent in the UK. The general use of freshwater fish other than salmonids for food died out long ago, partly as a result of the availability of cheap marine fish. The UK has been a leader in marine fishing, the local seas are productive, and there is no spot more than 120 km from tidal waters.

A traditional interest remains, however, in maintaining a commercial fishery for salmon and sea trout despite the comparatively small number of participants (see section 7.1.1). Furthermore, careful attention has been given to restricting gear and methods that might be harmful to the stocks, e.g., a new drift net fishery for salmonids that developed off the east coast of Scotland in 1960 was soon prohibited (September 1962). UK's salmon fishery may, of course, like that of other European countries be affected by more distant factors such as oceanic conditions, high seas interception, or the somewhat controversial salmon disease, UDN. In recent years, it has also been affected by augmented “poaching” using not only the age-old methods of gaffing, snaring and spearing but the use of lightweight monofilament nets, electro-fishing and poisoning. In 1983, the National Water Council stated that in some areas illegal catches were double the legal catch (Time, 1983).

With respect to commercial aquaculture, the field is primarily limited to salmonid culture because of the climatic conditions which preclude rapid growth in species such as carp, and the type of fish desired by the market. Actual production is limited by the sites available. The best for both salmon and trout appear to be in Scotland where the use of both running water and containment in freshwater and sea-lochs has facilitated cultivation. Limiting factors to aquacultural development include: egg supply (which must eventually come from farmed broodstock), predation, disease, and restrictions which may be placed on aquaculture because of the possible consequences of eutrophication and contamination from disposal of effluent and cage culture. In sea culture, there is also the possibility of damage to pens or cages by storms. For example, in Scotland where a large stocked cage of salmon at time of harvest represented an investment of around £ 20 000, circa 1981, and the loss of one cage in a three or four cage farm could be disastrous to a small farmer (Nestel, 1981).

9.3 Prospect

Water problems in Britain exist because of the broadly inverse distribution of precipitation (i.e., in the north and at heights) and water demands (in the south and lowlands). Furthermore, in the future, not only will industrial use increase, but there will be increases in individual use as for laundry, gardens and recreation. Like most European countries, the UK considers that its water supply is adequate to meet both current and future needs. Nevertheless, neither increasing water use nor changes in water quality are really encouraging to the future of its inland fisheries.

It has been estimated that the demands for water in England and Wales (which constitute 62 percent of UK's area and 88 percent of its population) will increase from the demand of 13.6 million m³/day in 1970 to 28.2 million m³/day in the year 2001. This is a doubling of demand, equivalent to about 15 percent of the entire runoff. To meet such demands, larger abstractions from rivers will be necessary, but since the possibilities for further diversion from rivers in the UK is now very limited unless coupled with storage, including bunded pumped reservoirs, reservoir area is expected to double by that time. It may also be necessary to increase transfer water between river catchments. It has been estimated that by the year 2000, perhaps 25 percent of all public water supplies will be transferred across the existing Water Authority boundaries (Smith, 1972). The best storage facilities are in the north and west, but the major demands are in the flatter Midlands and south east of Great Britain. Transfers will, therefore, be essentially south-eastward from Scotland, Wales and northern England. It may also be necessary to construct estuarial barrages to create large freshwater lakes. While perhaps improving some recreational activities, these may also bring about a multitude of problems including interference with fishery rights and fish migration. Doubling of water demand in Scotland is also anticipated by 2000, but ample water resources are available, and it is believed that they can be developed with minimum impact on fisheries. Northern Ireland is also considered to have abundant potential supplies for domestic and industrial use.

Meanwhile, although a number of smaller power stations on UK rivers have been closed, construction of new power stations, especially nuclear installations, will increase the use of water for cooling purposes, and thus raise the water temperatures where discharged. (Nuclear stations in Britain use about twice as much water for cooling as directly cooled coal-fired stations.) It is likely that most of these new stations will be sited on estuaries or the coast. It might generally appear that rises in water temperature would be harmfu to the fish fauna. Langford and Howells (1977) have, however, maintained that in spite of the extensive use of water in the UK and its discharge at a temperature higher than ambient, no serious adverse effects on the biota, fisheries productivity, or water quality have been noted, even on rivers such as the Trent or Thames, where a succession of stations use, in total, more than the river flow. Langford (1972) also felt that replacement of direct-cooled facilities by those with closed systems would actually reduce the quantity of heat discharged to rivers, “… at least over the next 20 to 25 years”. He did, however, place very tolerant temperature limits to be endured by the fauna, e.g., for a fairly clean British river with a mixed fishery, he felt that the temperature over the whole width of the river should not exceed more than 30°C for short periods and never more than 32°C. These are certainly not temperatures suitable for salmonoid stocks, and (to the author) do not present an optimistic picture.

Pollution levels are also likely to change as the number and variety of chemicals grow. Despite the improvement in water quality in many areas of the UK, the relative proportion of effluent in inland waters continues to rise, and the levels of nitrogen and phosphorus have risen decidedly. For example, at Loch Lomond where over 90 percent of nitrate nitrogen entering comes from farmland, the annual amount of nitrate entering the lake had doubled between 1966 and 1969 (Morgan, 1972). In any case, any increased water pollution, including that by heat, and lessened or altered flows will reduce the extent of riverine area suitable for a number of species of fish, and lead to changes in faunal composition. The salmon and trout fisheries will be particularly vulnerable to such changes.

Interbasin transfers of water may also bring about changes in both resident and anadromous stocks. For example, a redistribution of pike and perch stocks from one drainage to another may have occurred in the past through water diversion (Maitland, 1977) and the Stour is believed to have received pike-perch as the result of a water transfer scheme (Linfield, 1984). Interbasin water transfer may also bring about channel response such as clear water degradation. Even greater changes may be caused by disturbances of migration patterns through changes in water chemistry and timing of flows. (A statement based on the theory that salmon and sea trout “home” from coastal waters to their natal rivers by their formerly imprinted sense of smell (MAFF Dir: Fish. Res., 1982).)

There are, of course, partially alternative measures to meet water demands which would affect fisheries less adversely. These include: the use of ground water (possibly one-quarter of the new water supplies can be obtained from this source), recharge of aquifers, increased reuse and recirculation of effluents, and desalination of sea water (not considered a major source at present, however). Furthermore, most natural lakes in the UK will probably not be affected, i.e., not used for storage and therefore not subject to fluctuation. There will actually be increases in static waters, doubling of reservoir area, and new gravel pit waters which may increase five-fold by 2001. Furthermore, if the natural minimum flows in rivers can be increased, conditions for fish in some areas may be improved. The combined dry weather flow of rivers in England and Wales has already been doubled by the provision of storage, and the addition of pumped ground water to rivers to maintain their base flows above those amounts normally discharging, especially at periods of low summer or drought flow, has already become a feature of use schemes in several areas (Drennan, 1979).

Even with increases, however, the fishing public may not be satisfied. Surveys have indicated that freshwater fishermen in the UK prefer to fish rivers, and their general feeling is that their fishing areas have deteriorated. Ginifer (1992) for example, feels strongly that the “chalk streams” or spring creeks of southern England are deteriorating because of reduced flows due to headwaters abstraction, siltation, and a rise in the quantity of nitrates and phosphates from sewage works, trout farms, intensive agriculture, and cress farming. Spacing of anglers has been necessary even in some coarse fish areas, and a general trend of greater travel to distant waters as well as a trend toward sea fishing is already discernible. (The number of sea anglers in England and Wales has increased 40 percent in the decade since 1970 (Glyptis, 1980).) Furthermore, a water deficit for England and Wales has been predicted by the year 2000.

As in other affluent countries, there is a bias toward water-borne recreation, indicating a trebling of use by the next century, and conflict between angling and other recreational use (swimming, boating, and water-skiing) are well known (see Alabaster, 1978).

The future of commercial fishing in inland waters continues uncertain. In 1961, the Bledisloe Committee for Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries in England and Wales considered, but then rejected, the suggestion that the commercial fishery for salmon and sea trout be abolished. The commercial fishery for these species does continue to have a considerable economic and traditional value, but its importance will almost surely decrease as angling increases. Even in Scotland, it is felt that the role of commercial fishing for salmonids will be diminished. The Hunter Committee or Scottish Salmon and Trout Committee (DAFS, 1963, 1965) recommended that all coastal nets should eventually be abolished and when possible to replace the river net fisheries with trap fisheries. In Northern Ireland, a survey by Elson and Tuomi (1975) of the Foyle River system recommended: drastic curtailment of the commercial salmon fishery, prohibition of the sale of rod-caught salmon and sea trout, and emphasis on angling. (The sale of rod-caught salmon, which command a high price, and lack of bag limits lessens the distinction between commercial and recreational fishing.) Two other authorities have proposed that all catches in salmon rivers be left to sports fishermen (Mills and Piggins, 1978), although there is some question as to whether, in the long run, this would be useful (see, especially, Mills, 1989).

Conversely, commercial eel fishing in England and Wales continues to be far below its potential. A consensus (ICES/EIFAC, 1976) indicated that the abundance of elvers seemed satisfactory for stock maintenance, and that an increase in exploitation of silver eels would be both possible and desirable. A possible annual yield of 2 169 t in England and Wales has been estimated (MAFF, Dir. of Fish., 1979, 1982).

Aquaculture for food production is not expected to be a highly important use of inland waters in the UK, except in Scotland, although considerable effort is being made to rear salmonoid fishes for this purpose, and both rainbow trout and salmon culture in salt water will increase, especially in Scotland. The Fisheries Research and Development Board in its 1976–77 report estimated that by 1985, Great Britain would produce 3 000–5 000 t of salmon, and 15 000–20 000 t of trout, their use unspecified (MAFF/DAFS, 1978). Lewis (1980) predicted about 10 000 t of table trout in the UK by the mid-1980s. Shaw, Shaw and Thomas (1981) estimated the production potential of table rainbow trout in the UK would be 18 000 t in 1990, but that the demand in the UK would be only 9 000 t. They also estimated a production of 8 000–10 000 t of salmon, all from Scotland, by 1990, dependent upon market conditions. Tombleson (1982) predicted an output of about 20 000 t of trout in the UK by the mid-1980s, and Brown (1977) stated that some felt that the UK could absorb up to 50 000 t including imports. It is clear that these estimates have turned out to be fairly accurate for trout but have considerably underestimated the rate of development and potential within the Scottish salmon farming industry, where by 1989, the salmon production was already 28 000 t (see Section 7.2).

The industry for rearing trout to stock recreational waters will grow, especially as more emphasis is placed upon provision of sizeable trout, especially rainbow. Advances include the development of both early and late spawning strains and production of sterile female trout (triploids) only. Further advances will also be made in coarse fish culture.

The use of geographical information systems (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) in siting fish cultural establishments has already been mooted for aquacultural activities. See, for the UK especially: Meaden (1987) and Quintero-Marmel (1990)¹.

¹ The general subject is well described by Meaden and Kapetsky (1991)

It is difficult to visualize much expansion of the present capture fisheries of development of new ones in the UK as a whole. The expected changes in water quantity and quality, especially in rivers, generally militate against these possibilities. There are some exceptions. Scotland, particularly in its north, may be able to increase trout production in many of its unproductive or unutilized waters, e.g., through fertilization, introduction of forage organisms, or even reduction of recruitment to produce fish large enough to interest anglers. There will probably be changes in the attitude of anglers in the UK toward a number of fish now regarded as inferior to the top “game” fishes. The grayling, more generally respected outside Great Britain, and the introduced pike-perch are examples. There may be greater use of exotic species, e.g., the American brook trout, especially in acid lakes. There will probably be changes in the attitude of anglers in the UK toward the use of cyprinid coarse fishes and a culling of their stocks. There will be greater transfers of anglers from rivers to reservoirs.

In any event, aside from salmon culture in the north, whether it be development or merely “holding the line” to preserve natural waters for fishing, the future of inland fisheries in the UK may rest upon a more positive system for insuring investment in research into and management of recreational fisheries. Responsibilities for such action are now widely spread among a variety of public and private bodies and thus lack a unified pattern. For example, the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (England and Wales) does not appear to have a clear mandate to perform research on recreational fisheries, e.g., management of coarse fish stocks (MAFF/DAFS, 1976). However, the strengthening of the recreational remit given to the new National Rivers Authority, combined with its inherited responsibility to maintain, improve and develop fisheries may enable some progress to be made in this field.

There has also been a proliferation of groups (commissions, authorities, units, councils, boards, etc.) each having some say concerning the use of water which may affect fisheries, and often “advising” either the Government or each other and in turn being advised. As noted above it is to be hoped that a clearer focus on these questions will result from the formation of the N.R.A.

Furthermore, there is a division of governmental authority over the fisheries of the three major political sub-divisions of the UK. These are not necessarily adverse factors, many other governments have analogous allotment of responsibilities, but they must be considered in prognosticating the future. It seems probable that despite the age-old emphasis on private fishing rights, and what some have termed “class” distinctions even between the species fished (see Hunter, 1976), it will be recognized that more specific governmental controls over inland fisheries are necessary, and that the costs must be defrayed to a larger extent by the user. Both Banks (1990) and Chandler (1990) provide good information on the prospects for inland fisheries in Britain.

Perhaps the strongest argument for foreseeing a secure future for the inland fisheries of the UK lies in its policy of seeking to preserve its traditional values, including those of its fishery resources, and to apportion them as equably as possible in a highly industrialized nation.

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