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III. The People’s Participation Programme in Sierra Leone


Pujehun Background
Group Evolution
PPP Group Output
Sector Programs Update
Obstacles to Advancement
Enabling Linkages
Replication of PPP Methodology in Sierra Leone
Reasons Behind Success or Failure of Groups
Possible Follow-up Activities

Pujehun Background

Pujehun is one of the most sparsely populated and poorest of 13 administrative districts in Sierra Leone. It has approximately 100,000 inhabitants, spread over an area of 4,105 square kilometers. The overwhelming majority of people live in villages with fewer than 2000 inhabitants, and earn their living from small scale agriculture.

The district is characterized by coastal and interior plains. The climate is tropical, with distinct wet and dry seasons. Water resources are abundant throughout the district. The rainy season coincides with an annual “hungry season” when foodstuffs are normally scarce. The major crops grown in the area are upland rice, swamp rice, cassava, coffee, cocoa and groundnuts. Palm oil production and fisheries appear to be promising industries. Land ownership is communal.

Pujehun has little physical infrastructure and relatively few services. There are no paved roads in the district. Health and educational facilities are grossly inadequate. There are only four secondary schools and one hospital in the district, with most services concentrated in the immediate vicinity of Pujehun town. 86.8% of the population over five years of age never went to school; only 3.6% attended secondary school. According to the 1974 census, Pujehun district had a mortality rate of 32.8 and birth rate of 49.2 per thousand. The average life expectancy is 28.6 for men and 34.4 for women (Baseline Socio-Economic Survey, 1984).

The district suffered from considerable political violence during the mid-eighties, and was recently jolted by the execution of several native-born politicians following accusations that they participated in a plot to overthrow the government. Politics remains an open, if somewhat dangerous, game in Pujehun.

The PPP program was designed to improve the lives of the very poorest in Pujehun district by providing them with training, technical assistance and access to credit. The crux of the program was the formation of small farmers’ groups which would serve as a vehicle for self-development, empowerment and cooperation, while ensuring project sustainability.

Group Evolution


Group Structure
Membership

At the time of PPP project termination (1986), 73 self-help groups and one inter-group association functioned in 31 villages. Fifty-three of these groups now function in 28 villages. The average group size has grown from 14.6 to 37.3; and the number of beneficiaries has risen by 85%, from 1066 to 1975.

Group Structure

A typical PPP group in Pujehun has an executive council consisting of a group leader, alternate leader, women’s activities leader, treasurer, and secretary. Some groups also have youth organizers, social coordinators, or a committee assigned to develop contacts with development agencies. Groups are governed by a set of bylaws drawn up by members themselves. A typical set of laws lays out group structure and division of responsibilities, laws governing membership, meeting schedules, division of benefits, use of funds, and sanctions against uncooperative members.

In all cases, leaders are chosen by consensus of group members. Groups are reluctant to vote for their leaders because this was said to imply that there are winners and losers. Instead, discussions are held and agreement reached through the traditional method of “hanging heads.” Leaders are chosen for their ideas on development and general character. Valued qualities include: ability to settle disputes, manage a household and farm well, communicate with members on their level, honesty, and even temper. Leaders may be removed by consensus, but only in a few cases in the history of PPP/Pujehun have leaders been dismissed.

Basic Statistics of FAO Assisted Groups


1986

1989

Mixed groups

55

44

Women’s groups

18

9

Mixed group beneficiaries

895

1823

Women’s group beneficiaries

171

152

Total female beneficiaries

615

1033

Total beneficiaries

1066

1975

Average group size

14.6

37.3

Villages affected

31

28

Inter-group associations

1

1


There is a good deal of homogeneity among group members. Most are subsistence farmers, fishermen, or petty traders of similar economic and social status. Local elites, such as educators, chiefs, and civil servants often serve in an advisory capacity to the groups, or join as ordinary members. Although influential, they rarely hold the position of group leader, and appear quite aware of the need for members to decide their own affairs.

The one inter-group association (IGA) formed with the towns of Tongay, Niagorahun, Kengema and Vayama during the project continues to function. The governing structure of the IGA consists of a chairman and vice-chairman, women’s coordinator, planning committee, a monitoring committee, and a social committee. Activities of the IGA include annual meetings to discuss agricultural progress of the past year and plans for the new year, sharing of labor and seeds, coordination of community projects and formulation strategies to attract development assistance.

In addition, seven clusters of villages can now be said to have considerable links with one another, which may eventually develop into inter-group associations. The Tambiyama, Yuabu, Saguehun cluster does joint planning and shares seeds. Other villages give management advice to one another, attempt to coordinate resources for community development projects, and share cassava grating machines on a fee basis.

Membership

Large increases in group membership came after benefits of group work became obvious to members of the community. The most visible products of early group work were construction projects undertaken by groups, such as bridges, schools, meeting centers, and storage facilities. People often pointed to other benefits, such as increased incomes and food stocks, and cooperation where there had been none before PPP, as reasons for wanting to join a PPP group. Finally, several people also mentioned that they were attracted to the group by strong leaders. In 16 villages surveyed, the entire adult population was said to belong to a PPP group. Elders tended to serve as advisers and motivators while younger members performed most of the manual labor.

In six villages surveyed, membership in groups declined. The chief reasons given for the decline were: that members felt that there was little profit from group work and that they would be better off on their own; that no extension agents visited the village after PPP closed; that several group members migrated from the village; and that people felt extension workers were trying to exploit them. Poor leadership, arguments among members and inability to enforce bylaws were also listed as secondary reasons from surrendering membership. It is important to note that in each of the six villages, groups were only in the primary stages of development when the project closed. Three were very small and isolated villages with little or no access to inputs.

The number of sole women’s groups was halved, although total membership only fell by 11%. There were many reasons given for changing membership in these groups, including: arguments within the groups, inability to secure raw materials to make soap (the principle activity of women’s groups during PPP), loss of capital used for petty trading during a period of high inflation, death of strong leaders, and the marriage of younger women to men of other villages.

PPP Group Output


Sources of Income
Projects Undertaken

Sources of Income

Agricultural production continues to be the primary source of income for PPP groups in the Pujehun area. However, since 1985 there has been a marked shift away from groundnut farming and into swamp rice cultivation, with yields decreasing 73% and increasing 276% respectively. The shift can be attributed to several factors, including: (1) promotion of inland valley swamp development by the Ministry of Agriculture; (2) scarcity and high cost of inputs for groundnut cultivation after PPP phased out and; (3) low yields per bushel of groundnuts.

Similarly, soap making has declined markedly as an income source for PPP groups. Groups claimed that they stopped making soap because: inputs became scarce and costly after PPP phased out; the price of soap fell as production in the area expanded; and women were sometimes given very limited freedom to travel in search of inputs and markets.

Box 1: Blama Puila - Growth of a PPP Group

In Blama Puila, a PPP group was formed on the basis of an existing social club. Members realized some success in terms of raising food to carry them through the annual “hungry season” and in raising their incomes.

The initial success of the group helped to attract new members, who then raised enough money to build a community meeting center. Dances and end-of-year celebrations held at the center were used as forums to promote the group and to raise awareness about development issues affecting the town.

Gradually, the entire adult population of the town became interested in joining the group. As the group grew, it divided into two for ease of management. They constructed a water well, set up a revolving credit fund, planted an oil palm nursery, and brought in supplies of rice during times of shortage. The groups plan to build a traditional birth attendant’s house next year.


Cassava grating continues to be profitable for PPP groups. All eight machines sold to the groups by the project continue to function. Trained group members perform routine maintenance on the machines and groups supply their own fuel. Spare parts left by PPP continue to fulfil the needs of the groups. Mechanics are available in a regional trading center to do major repairs. Machines are used to process groups’ cassava into garri for sale to buying agents and are rented to neighboring villages. One former staff member noted that during the hungry season, two PPP villages became major supply centers for garri. Three groups have expressed their intentions to acquire cassava grating machines in the near future.

Other group activities in 1989 include: two groups involved in petty trading, two groups involved in vegetable gardening, and three groups involved in fishing or hunting. Two groups also produce crafts, such as pottery, baskets and hats, for local markets. They would like to expand their marketing network, but lack transportation and contacts.

Group Income Generating Activities

Group Activity

Number of Groups

1985

1989

Swamp rice farming

7

9

Upland rice farming

14

11

Cassava farming

10

13

Groundnut farming

17

4

Soap making

12

5

Cassava grating

8

8

Business

1

2

Crafts

0

2

Fishing/hunting

0

3

Vegetable gardening

0

2


Estimated income derived from group agricultural activities for 1989 was Le. 784,750. Because harvesting of rice and cassava was not complete at the time of the survey, income estimates are based on the acreage of cassava or number of bushels of rice planted, multiplied by the average yield, and by the current farm gate price. Records of income for other group activities were not complete, making estimates for 1989 difficult. Forty-three acres of palm oil plantation owned by two PPP groups are expected to become productive in the near future, and will therefore increase annual agricultural income significantly.

Estimated Agricultural Income for all PPP Groups (Le.)

Activity

Yield 1985

Yield 1989

1989 Price Per Unit

Projected 1989 Income

Swamp rice

78 bu.

292.5 bu.

700

204,750

Upland rice

403 bu.

499.5 bu.

700

349,650

Cassava

n/a

54.5 ac.

3500

190,750

Groundnuts

245 bu.

66 bu.

600

39,600

Total




784,750


Projects Undertaken

PPP groups use their income to undertake a wide variety of projects. By far, most resources are devoted to community development projects which are subsidized by the BPRDP Community Action Fund and the BPRDP Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project. Some groups, however, have taken on projects without outside assistance. One group constructed a traditional birth attendant’s house entirely using local resources, another contracted to have a well built, and others have done road improvement projects. The Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources and Forestry assisted three groups by subsidizing planting materials for palm oil plantations.

Villages installing wells are said to have experienced a 50% decrease in infant mortality due to water-borne diseases and significant decreases in the incidence of diarrheal diseases among the adult population (Bellin, p.14). The wells have also helped to decrease the workload of women and children, who sometimes walk miles to obtain water in the dry season.

Community Development Projects Undertaken, 1986-89

Project

Number

Estimated Cost of Projects (Le.)

Value of Local Contribution (Le.)

Well

7

3,921,000

21,000

Bridge

4

504,000

252,000

Storage facility

3

328,454

148,000

TBA house

1

20,000

20,000

Oil palm plantation

2

n/a

48,120

Oil palm nursery

4

n/a

n/a

Road improvement

2

n/a

50,000

Community meeting place

9

1,080,000

540,000

Total

32

5,853,454

1,079,120


Community Development Projects Undertaken, 1982-86

Project

Number

Estimated Cost of Projects (Le.)

Value of Local Contribution (Le.)

Storage facility

4

472,000

236,000

School

2

340,000

170,000

Health center

1

152,400

76,200

Community meeting place

1

120,000

60,000

Total

8

1,084,400

542,200


Road improvement and bridge construction have helped to improve market access for several villages. Villages previously accessible only by foot path or palm log bridges may now be serviced by lorries carrying produce to and from markets. It is hoped that this will eventually help to increase economic activity and to decrease the burden of transporting produce by porter.

There is some speculation among BPRDP and MRDSSY staff that community meeting centers and storage facilities are being requested by village groups as status symbols, rather than as productive community projects. Indeed, in only one village was a storage facility used by group members to keep their individual stocks of grain. Problems of trust and management have to be worked out in other villages before farmers are willing to store their grain in a common area. Most groups use the stores only to keep produce of group farms and group owned tools. The meeting places are used to stage social events and important meetings, and as health clinics or schoolrooms.

Most of the projects undertaken thus far yield indirect, rather than direct, economic benefits. They will require a source of continued funds for maintenance in the future, for which PPP groups must begin to plan.

Nevertheless, the projects are a tremendous source of pride for the communities, and are instrumental in promoting group cooperation. Sixteen villages surveyed mentioned that interest in group work increased dramatically after they were able to complete their first construction project. Moreover, they reported that completion of early projects gave them the confidence they needed to tackle other problems. Community structures built through group effort stand in marked contrast to similar structures put up by the government in other villages in that they are well maintained, used frequently, and protected to prevent damage by small livestock.

Other important projects have been undertaken by PPP groups. Several groups reserve food produced on groups farms to help members get through the annual “hungry season.” Rice is stored or cassava harvest postponed until the need for food becomes critical. Stocks are then divided among members. Four groups use funds to purchase supplies of rice for resale to groups members at times when rice is not available in local markets.

Fourteen groups have set up seed banks. Rice and groundnut seeds are kept by the groups for interest free loans to group members, or for sale at reasonable rates. This has helped to relieve pressure to find seeds during the planting season. Farmers have remarked that the schemes have helped to reduce their dependence on expensive outside sources of seeds, ensure the purity of varieties planted, and ensure a constant supply of seeds. This is an especially important activity because the supply of seeds from MANRF and development agencies is erratic, and pressure to consume rice during the hungry season is great. Farmers without such seed banks are in a very insecure position.

Ten groups have set up revolving loan funds. Members borrow money to purchase agricultural or fishing inputs or to do petty trading. Eleven groups have set up emergency loan funds to cover the expenses of members needing medical services or to help cover the expenses of funerals for families of group members. Three groups use their proceeds to settle social commitments, such as covering the expense of marriages, initiating children into secret societies, or entertaining visitors to the community. Groups remarked that the various funds have greatly reduced their dependence on money lenders and have provided an important form of social security for members who would otherwise find it difficult to obtain services needed. Three groups merely divide proceeds from groups work among members each year.

Other Projects Undertaken

Project

Number of Groups

Food bank

4

Revolving loan fund

10

Emergency fund

11

Seed bank

14

Social fund

3


Thirty-six community development projects are planned by PPP groups for the coming two years, with an estimated cost to them of Le. 1,498,934. The projects appear to be within the groups’ budget limits, provided that group income is managed well, subsidies by BPRDP/CAF continue at the present rate, and projects are approved by BPRDP/CAF officials.

Community Development Projects Planned, 1990-91

Project

Number

Estimated Cost of Projects (Le.)

Value of Local Contribution (Le.)

Well

9

7,020,000

36,000

Bridge

7

882,000

441,000

Storage facility

4

472,000

236,000

TBA house

7

735,000

367,500

Road improvement

1

n/a

n/a

Community meeting place

4

480,000

240,000

School

2

340,000

170,000

Latrines

1

16,869

8,434

Upgrade blacksmith

1

n/a

n/a

Total

36

9,945,869

1,498,934

Sector Programs Update


Savings and Credit
Women’s Program
Monitoring and Evaluation
Agricultural Training
Leadership Training

Savings and Credit

A key component of PPP/Pujehun was to increase small farmers’ access to credit. A guarantee-cum-risk fund was set up at Barclays Bank/Pujehun, and a revolving fund intended to supply seeds, tools, fertilizers, inputs for soap making, and spare parts for cassava grating machines was established with MRDSSY. As of 1985, 100 loans had been given to PPP groups with a recovery rate of 90%.

At the same time, groups were encouraged to open savings accounts at the bank, or to save in group treasuries. By the end of the project, seven bank accounts were active and 14 group treasuries established. Group members, however, continued to be suspicious of banking and credit schemes (Huizer, 1986, p. 37).

PPP Group Savings


1986

1989

Cash savings

Le. 49,450

Le. 182,180

Active bank accounts

7

3

Group treasuries

14

23

* 1989 Leones
Their suspicions proved accurate. Since 1987 the banking system in Sierra Leone has experienced a prolonged liquidity crisis. Groups now complain of not being allowed to withdraw their money from the bank or of having to pay bribes (up to 20% of money requested) to make a withdrawal. Members still do not clearly understand finance charges levied on their accounts or how to calculate interest due. Four of seven groups have closed their accounts at the bank.

Group savings are normally held by elected treasurers. There have been some cases of misuse of funds by treasurers, but groups seem to have developed a number of internal control measures to prevent this. For instance, treasurers are chosen by the group primarily for their trustworthiness. They are randomly asked to produce group savings for inspection, and are not allowed to distribute funds without the entire group population present. Financial transactions are entered into group record books. Finally, several groups noted that they would only elect a treasurer with some resources of his own. This is meant to reduce their temptation to misuse funds and to give the groups collateral to collect against in case of any financial irregularities.

Groups find it difficult to save in cash because high inflation (60% in 1989) continually decreases their real balances. Savings in kind are difficult because of poor storage facilities and pressure to distribute food during the hungry season. Groups therefore tend to accumulate a sum of money which they invest in community development projects or circulate in the form of interest earning loans to members. Total estimated cash savings at the time of the survey are Le. 182,180. Twelve villages have little or no cash savings. Fifteen villages reported savings in the form of crops in the ground, business investments, and credits due. Eight villages said that their savings have helped them to greatly reduce problems of food supply during the hungry season.

It seems to be important that groups have something to save for: groups with low savings rates or no savings also had no specific plans for development or seemed not to be aware of possibilities for investments. There are few consumer goods to purchase in the Pujehun area, and fewer products that would be of interest for group acquisition.

The guarantee-cum-risk fund set up at Barclays Bank by FAO has been dormant since the project ended. SDWs have suggested that the fund would have continued to function had the signatories on the account been lower level officials and group members in the Pujehun area, rather than high level ministry officials stationed outside of the area. Likewise, the revolving fund established by the project has ceased to exist. Inputs were sold off and not replaced.

No groups have obtained credit from the bank or from the revolving fund since the PPP project closed. However, several have set up loan funds of their own. Fifteen loan seeds to their members at interest rates ranging from zero to 50% per year. Five of these groups extend such credit to non-members as well. Nine groups extend credit in cash to members for use in agricultural projects, petty trading, or in case of emergency. Interest rates charged by groups vary form 10% to 100% per annum. It was encouraging to hear at least 7 groups say that they no longer depend on money lenders, who typically lend at 200% to 300% per annum.

Groups claim to have near perfect repayment rates on loans made to their members. This was attributed to peer pressure put on members to repay, a method that appears to work better in smaller, more homogenous groups or communities than larger towns or groups. Two groups required guarantors for all loans. One group would not make any cash loans to its members, but would guarantee loans taken from other sources.

Women’s Program

Women’s issues were of central concern to the PPP/Pujehun program. During the latter phases of the project, attempts were made to form active women’s groups which would raise women’s ability to participate in the decision making process in their communities, give them greater access to inputs and more control over income.

The program faced several obstacles, including the predominance of Islam in the area, and the traditional belief that women are part and parcel of men. Women in Tambiyama, for instance, described themselves as “pillars underneath the men.”

Soap making, the principle economic activity of women during PPP, proved to be unsustainable after project closure due to the high cost and scarcity of inputs previously supplied by PPP, and depressed prices for soap. In three cases, women complained that men exercised a great deal of control over their groups. They were allocated marginal plots to do their farming, not allowed to travel outside the village to market produce or to purchase inputs, not assisted in plowing land or not given access to credit. In two villages surveyed, women felt that their group succeeded only with the help of the youth: children were willing to assist their mothers when men would not. Women’s groups failed in ten villages in the project area, but started in four other villages. All of the failed women’s groups indicated that they would like to begin again. In two cases, women’s groups voluntarily combined with mixed groups.

Despite difficulties, significant progress on women’s issues has been made. Project staff worked hard to alter perceptions of both men and women. By the end of the project, women were getting an increasing role in decision making and leadership in many villages (Huizer, 1986; Groverman, 1986). The MRDSSY has continued to promote women’s groups by appointing a former GP as women’s coordinator. She advises groups on possible trouble spots, tries to enlist the support for women’s groups from influential people in the village, helps to identify possible income generating activities, and guides the group until the SDW responsible for the area is able to assume responsibilities.

There are currently nine sole women’s groups in the project area with 152 beneficiaries. They are almost exclusively involved in groundnut and soap production, petty trading, and vegetable gardening. In cases where women’s groups have failed, former members report that they continue to benefit from skills learned during the time of PPP, such as improved methods of vegetable gardening and soap making.

Social workers claim that women are increasingly vocal in meetings, and that men are increasingly willing to respect women’s opinions and recognize their needs. An indication of this may be that the common preference for community development projects seems to be the building of a community meeting place and a store, than a traditional birth attendant’s house to “please the women.”

In 14 villages visited, women were quite outspoken in meetings. They held leadership posts (other than women’s leader) in five mixed groups. Women’s groups are now being promoted by MRDSSY and MANRF throughout the district.

Monitoring and Evaluation

A monitoring and evaluation system was developed for use by the Pujehun project by the FAO Associate Expert assigned to the project. Monitoring was carried out at the group, field staff, and project levels (Groverman, 1986).

Groups were encouraged to keep records of: names of members and changes in membership, responsibilities of various committees and executives, short and long term goals of the group, bylaws, work schedules, inputs delivered, production, finances, important decisions taken by the group, training activities and visits by extension workers. The records were intended to be used as tools for self-monitoring and planning.

At the field staff level, extension workers kept records of basic group data, group loans, and daily activity schedules. Daily schedules included such information as date and purpose of visit to a group, results/remarks on groups progress, and action required. Workers were required to submit monthly reports detailing dates and times of group meetings attended, activities of group members, topics discussed and decisions taken, and external factors affecting group performance.

Project level records provided a list of basic socio-economic characteristics of each village, activities of groups, internal development of groups, external factors affecting group performance, and the number of visits by extension agents. A system for classifying internal group development was devised by Peter Oakley in 1985. It contained a list of indicators which would help workers to classify groups in three basic stages of development: one, emerging group characteristics; two, self-reliance; and three, independence (See Appendix II for more detail). Project staff met monthly to review the progress of groups and to discuss problem areas.

The monitoring and evaluation process set up by the project continues to function in largely the same manner. All but two of the groups keep record books. The books appear rather disorganized, but do contain essential information. Only four groups, however, report using the books for planning purposes. The use of records for monitoring and evaluation by groups is limited by the high level, of illiteracy among group members.

SDWs continue to turn in monthly reports to supervisors following the same format set out under PPP. Monthly meetings are held at MRDSSY to discuss progress and problems of groups, yet workers complain that they lack the openness, free exchange, and constructive discussion of problem areas that they experienced during the PPP project. The value of the meetings as a device for training workers is therefore somewhat diminished. The problem might be alleviated by a system of monthly zonal reviews recently implemented by MRDSSY and BPRDP/CAF. During these reviews, SDWs and their supervisors from each zone discuss the progress of work, performance of SDWs and potential problem areas. Information gathered from monthly meetings and reports feeds into central records of MRDSSY and BPRDP/CAF.

According to Oakley indicators, at the end of the project, 43% of the groups were said to be in the first stage of development (emerging group characteristics); 28% in the second stage (self-reliance); and 30% in the third stage (independence). Of the FAO assisted groups, 3%, 14%, and 86% now appear to be in the first, second and third stages respectively. The number of groups classified as independent may, however, be deceiving. Most are independent by default. They meet regularly and take decisions on their own, reorganize themselves, progress without field staff, and link with other groups; but claim that they must depend on field staff to make contacts with development agencies and secure delivery of inputs. Villages are visited by field staff on the average only once in three months. Six have never been visited by a SDW since the PPP project closed.

Agricultural Training

Two agro-technicians were assigned to work with the PPP project in Pujehun. Their purpose was to provide technical advice to farmers to help them increase and diversify production. The agro-technicians taught farmers improved storage and planting techniques, use of fertilizers, composting, and timely weeding practices. They also introduced swamp development for increased rice production, improved varieties of rice and vegetable seeds, and new techniques for groundnut cultivation.

Groups visited were enthusiastic about the training they received. Twenty-five percent asked for further training. Swamp development seems to be a top priority with nine of 28 active groups now earning incomes from swamp rice and four more wanting to expand into the area. Eight groups also listed groundnut cultivation as a priority, but said that they lacked the inputs and training to begin work.

Group members have carried lessons of fertilizing, composting and proper spacing of vegetables to their private farms. Improved rice and vegetable seed varieties brought by PPP extension agents continue to be multiplied throughout the area. Fertilizers, however, are no longer available in the district.

MRDSSY has retained a former PPP agro-technician on its staff to ensure continuity in the program. He functions in much the same capacity as he did under PPP, but is responsible for all groups within the Pujehun district. Importantly, MANRF uses groups operating under MRDSSY as a basis for extension efforts and delivery of inputs.

Leadership Training

Leadership training for group members was delivered in two forms during the PPP project: directly to groups through visits by GPs; and through regional leadership and technical workshops attended by selected members of groups. Topics discussed included group organization, record keeping, locating resources for development, and savings and credit. It was hoped that leaders would emerge from PPP groups to become vocal advocates for small farmers’ issues.

While there is little evidence of any small farmers’ “interest group” in the Pujehun area, there are encouraging signs that farmers’ issues are becoming increasingly important on the political agenda. Several candidates contesting an open parliamentary seat in the area are tailoring their campaign rhetoric to small farmers’ and other self-help groups. Many aspiring politicians trying to organize groups themselves, or help existing groups to identify potential funding sources. On the village level, most groups have commanded the respect and support of village chiefs and elders. For instance, in one village where a conflict emerged between the chief and the group over expenditure on a community development project, the group won out. Members of the town are now considering having the chief removed for “not working in the interest of the village.”

Extension workers continue to provide guidance on leadership during their visits but because of a lack of funds no regional group management workshops have been held since the project closed. Former GPs now working in the Bo district have, however, formed workers’ associations in Tikonko, Bumpe and Valonia chiefdoms. The purpose of the associations is to bring extension workers from various ministries and group leaders together to coordinate efforts, find ways to deliver more effective services, and to search for solutions to individual group problems. In this way, the workers associations serve as both monitoring and training forums.

Four groups interviewed claimed to be in need of more training in group organization and management techniques. The need may be very real, given the large increase in average group size and their increasingly complex planning and financial requirements.

Former PPP staff members have used skills learned during their work with PPP to become leaders in their own right. Most have been promoted into more responsible positions since leaving PPP and have become leading opinion makers in their new jobs (see also section “Replication of PPP Methodology in Sierra Leone,” pages 35-39).

Former PPP Project Staff

Name

PPP Position

Current Position

I.B. Kamara

Project Coordinator

Director, National Training Center

M.S. Kanneh

Project Coordinator

Assistant Chief Social Development Officer, MRDSSY

P. Bundu

Assistant Project Coordinator

Social Development Assistant One, MRDSSY, Kailahun District

L. Buani

Literacy Supervisor

SDW, Coordinator of Community Development and Small Farmers; Initiatives, MRDSSY, Kailahun District

P.A. Moriba

Marketing and Credit Supervisor

Marketing and Credit Officer, MRDSSY, Port Loko District

H. Kondar

Agro-technician

Agro-technician, MRDSSY, Pujehun District

J. Kamara

Agro-technician

Agro-technician, MANRF, Pujehun District

J. Kamara

GP

SDW, MRDSSY, Pujehun District

A. Fofanah

GP

SDW, Women’s Coordinator, MRDSSY, Pujehun District

A. Koroma

GP

SDW, MRDSSY, Bo District

H. Rodgers

GP

Zone Supervisor, MRDSSY, Bo District

M. Dabo

GP

Zone Supervisor, MRDSSY, Bo District

D. Sessay

GP

Zone Supervisor, MRDSSY, Bo District

M. Sundifu

GP

Zone Supervisor, MRDSSY, Pujehun District

F. Mansaray

GP

Farmer’s Association Officer, FAO Inland Valley Swamp Development Project, Moyamba District

Obstacles to Advancement

During group meetings, participants were asked to identify constraints to increasing their output. The question was open ended, and some of the responses were quite interesting. In rank order, groups listed the following constraints to increased production:

PPP Group Constraints

Problem

Number of Groups

Lack of inputs (seeds, tools, fertilizers, caustic soda for soap production, etc.)

16

Bird and rodent infestation on farms

11

Need for more guidance form extension workers

6

Hunger/poor health

6

Need for more technical training

5

Corruption

5

Poor access to technology (improved seeds, machinery)

4

Poor transportation

4

Bureaucracy of development organizations

4

Illiteracy

3

Arguments within the group

3

Lack of cooperation from village elites

3

Poor access to credit

2

Poor state of the economy

2

Poor post-harvest storage techniques

2

Labor shortages

1


Lack of inputs, and bird and rodent infestation were by far the problems most frequently raised by groups. The groups seem to have the confidence that if given the proper inputs, and some technical guidance, they could increase production on their own. One group of elders commented “most development agencies are trying to teach us what we already know. What we need to work now are inputs and capital.”

There is an acute shortage of tools in the Pujehun area. There are no known suppliers of commercially made tools, and local blacksmiths complain of severe shortages of scrap iron to make tools themselves. Seeds are distributed by various development agencies, mostly on a revolving fund basis, but supplies are erratic and rarely to satisfy the needs of farmers.

Enabling Linkages

Several development programs are currently operating in the Pujehun district. A brief description of their objectives, range of operations, and relationship to PPP groups under study follows:

Bo-Pujehun Rural Development Project (BPRDP). BPRDP seeks to strengthen the institutional capacity of government ministries through the provision of finance, training, infrastructure and logistical support. It works closely with the Ministries of Health, Agriculture, and Rural Development; and the Fisheries Division. BPRDP also provides direct support to community development initiatives. It covers the entire Bo and Pujehun Districts.

Community Action Fund (CAF). CAF operates as a division of BPRDP. It is designed as a self-help promotional program meant to complement technical programs by subsidizing village level construction projects and other self-help initiatives. Groups are required to make a cash contribution equal to 10% of the cost of imported materials, and to provide locally available resources, such as timber, sand, stones, and labor, needed to complete their projects. The total value of the local contribution is estimated to be 50% of the value of the project. CAF operates throughout the Bo and Pujehun Districts, working in close cooperation with MRDSSY. CAF has supported 23 projects undertaken by PPP groups with a total value of Le. 2,904,400. The value of PPP group contributions to the projects is estimated to be Le. 1,452,200.

Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project (BPRWSSP). BPRWSSP works in cooperation with the Ministry of Energy and Power and private contractors to drill safe water wells for communities, construct improved pit latrines for schools and health centers, train hand pump attendants, and train a well drilling team. To date, it has completed construction of 258 working wells and 141 latrines throughout the Bo and Pujehun districts. PPP groups have arranged to have five wells dug by BPRWSSP with a total value of Le. 3,900,000 and total local contribution of Le. 20,000.

Ministry of Agriculture. Natural Resources and Forestry (MANRF). MANRF/Pujehun has four basic packages of assistance to farmers: subsidized provision of materials and technical advice for the establishment of oil palm, coffee and cocoa nurseries and plantations; technical training and seed for groundnut production by women; loans of improved rice seed and technical advice on maintaining quality and purity of seeds; and inland valley swamp development for increased rice production. Two PPP groups have spent Le. 48,120 total to establish two palm oil plantations totaling 43 acres. Four others have planted palm oil nurseries with the assistance of MANRF. Twelve groups receive extension services from the Ministry.

Ministry of Rural Development. Social Services and Youth (MRDSSY). MRDSSY operates throughout the Bo and Pujehun districts. It is responsible for assisting in the implementation of CAF programs, forming and supporting self-help groups, youth and voluntary organizations, doing family case work, monitoring prisons, and tracking progress of under fives clinics. Twenty-four active PPP groups have had contacts with MRDSSY since the project ended. They channel applications for CAF projects through the Ministry and/or receive the extension services of SDWs.

Fisheries Division. The Fisheries Division promotes inland fish culture in the Bo district and capture fishing in the Pujehun district. Programs in the Pujehun district include the promotion of savings and credit societies, provision of supplies, training in the maintenance of gear and improved fish processing methods. The project assists approximately 50 societies in the Pujehun district. The Fisheries Division has helped two PPP groups to establish revolving funds, and given them access to inputs needed for capture fisheries.

Council of Churches in Development (CCD). CCD operates in four chiefdoms of central Pujehun district. It seeks to assist farmers by providing capital to establish small scale revolving funds, building grain stores, providing general extension services, and loaning groundnut and rice seed. Construction and credit programs are completely subsidized. CCD has assisted three PPP groups by loaning them seeds and granting small amounts of capital to establish revolving funds.

Functional Adult Literacy Program (FALP). FALP operates in 18 villages within a nine mile radius of Dandebu, north-central Pujehun district. Its objective is to promote self-reliance in villages through functional adult literacy, infrastructure development, and supplying grants for small projects such as community farms, soap making and vegetable gardening. No PPP groups currently work with FALP.

Barclays Bank of Sierra Leone. Barclays Bank is the only bank operating in the Pujehun district. It offers savings and current accounts and loan facilities. Barclays policy is to make 25% of all lending to agricultural projects, although no such loans have been given out to small farmers in the Pujehun district. Relations between Barclays and PPP groups are strained due to a prolonged liquidity crises, and mistrust of the institution by group members. Only three former PPP groups have active savings accounts; four others have allowed their accounts to become dormant.

Christian Extension Services (CES). CES operates in 45 villages in south-west Pujehun district. It promotes dry season agriculture, public health, adult literacy, community development and evangelism. No PPP groups have contact with CES at this time.

The Growth Center. The Growth Center is a technical training institute providing training in carpentry, sewing, and tie dying. The Center would like to expand into blacksmithing, craft marketing, and soap making but lacks capital to do so. It is located in Pujehun town, and is meant to serve the entire district. Two PPP groups have approached the Growth Center to assist them in marketing their crafts. Efforts are being made within the severe budgetary constraints of the center to do so.

Factors limiting contact with development organizations include lack of information on the part of groups and SDWs about potential areas of cooperation; and a general mistrust of institutions by small farmers.

PPP Group Contacts

Contact

Number of Groups

BPRDP/CAF

12

BPRWSSP

7

MANRF

12

MRDSSY

24

Fisheries Division

2

CCD

3

FALP

0

Barclays Bank

7

CES

0

Growth Center

2

Replication of PPP Methodology in Sierra Leone

Replication of the PPP methodology in Sierra Leone has occurred with varying degrees of success through three channels: adoption of the methodology by MRDSSY, adoption of the methodology by other development projects, and the natural spread effect from one village to another within the Pujehun district. Former project staff have played a crucial role in ensuring adoption of the methodology outside of the Pujehun District.

The Chief Social Development Officer in the MRDSSY has claimed to have adopted the PPP model for promotion by the Ministry throughout the country. The Ministry, however, lacks the funds and logistical support to properly replicate the program.

Nevertheless, crucial components of the methodology have been integrated into the curriculum of the National Training Center (NTC), Sierra Leone’s institution charged with providing certificate level training to the nation’s rural development workers. The center is now directed by former PPP Project Coordinator I.B. Kamara. He requires students to spend significant amounts of time studying subjects such as group dynamics, leadership training, participatory development, communication skills, and the use of outside resources to support group work.

Former Assistant Project Coordinator Paul Bundu and former Literacy Supervisor Lawrence Buani promote the PPP methodology for MRDSSY in the Kailahun district of eastern Sierra Leone. MRDSSY/Kailahun has helped to establish 48 groups in 10 villages based on the PPP methodology. One group alone is said to have cultivated over 18 acres of swamp rice and have over Le. 90,000 in savings. Kailahun groups are involved in rice farming, trading, and back yard vegetable gardening. They use proceeds to establish revolving credit funds, purchase tools and other inputs, and share income among groups members. MRDSSY personnel are trying to coordinate their group development efforts with MANRF, but are frustrated by the lack of supplies, financial and logistical support in the Kailahun district. No other major development projects are operating in the district at the present time.

Former GP Foday Mansaray is now Farmers’ Associations Officer for the FAO Inland Valley Swamp Development Project in Moyamba district, southern Sierra Leone. He is charged with organizing and promoting farmers associations within the project area and providing training in group organization to project staff. Mr. Mansaray has used the basic principles of the PPP methodology to do so, including: an emphasis on income generating activities, PPP models of group organization, regular meetings, formation of bylaws, continuous self monitoring, evaluation and planning, and leadership training. He has also laid emphasis on women’s issues, using the cluster principle for organizing extension workers, and the creation of posts for Marketing and Credit Supervisor, Women’s Coordinator, and Literacy Supervisor. The project serves 73 farmers’ associations with approximately 2,000 members.

GPs Angela Koroma, Daniel Sessay, Mustafa Dabo and Harold Rodgers were transferred to the Bo division of MRDSSY. Messrs. Sessay, Dabo, and Rodgers were promoted to supervisory positions, responsible for on the job training and supervising activities of approximately five Social Development Workers (SDWs) each. Mr. Sessay is currently away on study leave in Cameroon. These workers have provided training to their counterparts in the PPP methodology, helped to establish the current monitoring and evaluation system used by MRDSSY/Bo, and fed suggestions into the development of BPRDPs Village Level Planning (VLP) initiative. VLP is an attempt to ensure that BPRDP is responding to the needs of villages by involving villagers in the planning, implementing, and monitoring of projects; and by integrating various sector programs to produce comprehensive village and chiefdom development plans. Communal groups organized on many of the same principles of PPP groups are expected to become a driving force behind VLP, much as the PPP groups have for CAF. There are currently ten groups based on the PPP methodology operating in eight villages in two chiefdoms of the Bo district. Data for other chiefdoms is not available, but several groups are believed to be operating there.

Finally, there has been a natural spread effect of PPP within the Pujehun district. Twelve groups studied report having assisted neighboring villages to establish groups of their own. Indeed, as meetings were held to conduct this study, members of other villages often sat in to listen and learn how they could form their own groups. Interest in group work appears to be quite high in the Pujehun district, largely thanks to the visible successes of established groups and the continued work by former GPs in the area and continued work by former project staff.

Former Agro-technician Henry Kondar is assigned to MRDSSY/Pujehun to provide agricultural services to all existing groups in the district. Former GP Anna Fofanah acts as a SDW for one chiefdom and Women’s Activities Coordinator for the district. Former GP Janet Koroma continues as a SDW and expects to take on more responsibilities with the women’s program in the near future. Former GP Michael Sundifu has been promoted into a supervisory position at MRDSSY/Pujehun. All of these workers have continued close contact with former PPP groups and have provided on the job training in the methodology to their colleagues. In all, the PPP methodology has been replicated in 80 new villages in the Pujehun district.

Spread of PPP Methodology

District

Number of Villages

Number of Groups

Estimated Number of Beneficiaries

Pujehun

108

133

n/a

Bo*

8

10

n/a

Moyamba

n/a

73

2000

Kailahun

10

48

600

Total


264


* Information only available for two of 13 chiefdoms.
At least 264 PPP-style groups now exist in the southern and eastern districts of the country. While technical and material assistance provided by FAO and BPRDP projects may have contributed to the proliferation of groups in the Bo, Pujehun, and Moyamba districts, it does not appear to be a necessary condition. Groups function in Kailahun with no project support, and nearly one quarter of the groups visited in Pujehun report no contact with outside agencies since the time of project closure. Moreover, groups undertake a number of important projects without outside assistance. One group constructed a well entirely with its own resources. Others have undertaken road improvement projects, set up food banks, seed banks, and loan funds on their own.

The proliferation of groups in the southern district may also be attributed to the deteriorating economic and political situation in the country. During the 1980s, the Sierra Leonean economy was characterized by negative rates of growth and high inflation. Consumption declined and foreign aid receipts per capita fell. Provision of heath and education services declined (World Bank, 1989), and political instability rose. And there was little to indicate that situation would reverse itself in the foreseeable future. For people in the villages, the 1980s, was a period marked by political and economic aggression in which they saw their standard of living decline. This situation served as a powerful incentive for group action. Indeed, several group members commented that they felt the need to take action because they could not depend on the government or development agencies to provide the services they needed. Within this framework, group action provided a catalyst for development and a safety net for the poorer segments of society.

Reasons Behind Success or Failure of Groups

It has been suggested that the following conditions enhance group sustainability:

1. the quality of the groups formation process;
2. quality of training for group promoters;
3. quality of training for group members;
4. success of income generating activities;
5. homogeneity of groups members; and
6. willingness of groups to participate in mutual self-help (McKone, p. 31).
For the most part, these conditions were met in the Pujehun project. Groups appear to have been formed well and GPs well trained. Group members themselves remarked on the importance of the latter three items in success of their groups. Other factors they listed as necessary for group success include:
1. strong leadership;
2. honesty of group members;
3. ability and willingness to enforce bylaws;
4. development of appropriate bylaws; and
5. access to resources (capital, material inputs, etc.).
Only five of the 55 mixed groups functioning at the end of the project can be said to have failed. There are multiple reasons for the failure of these groups; but certain themes emerged more frequently than others. In three villages, groups did not realize any tangible profit from their work, nor did they receive the support of extension agents after PPP closed. Two groups reported that they dissolved after losing large sums of money to corrupt extension agents. Two villages were quite small and isolated. They had very limited access to resources, and could not enlist the support of key opinion makers in the village. Other factors that accounted for group failure were: inability to enforce bylaws, heterogeneity of group members, and lack of cooperation among members.

Ten of eighteen women’s groups failed, and two voluntarily joined larger mixed groups. The reasons behind their failure, however, were much different than the reasons behind the failure of the mixed groups. Moreover, all of the women’s groups indicated that they would like to begin operations again.

As noted under the section “Women’s Program,” the groups failed largely because they were fairly new and weak at the time of project closure, soap making (their main income generating activity) proved to be unprofitable and unsustainable on a large scale, and membership changed frequently as women married, moved or key leaders died. Three groups complained of interference by men, and two of internal quarrels.

It is worthwhile to note that even though many groups failed, many members felt that they gained from their experience. Women in Konalleh said that they continue to realize sizeable profits on their private farms from vegetable cultivation techniques and improved varieties that they obtained during the project. Several women in Falaba still make soap, although no longer in a group.

Moreover, even in villages where groups have failed, the ideas of PPP are still very much alive. Groups may resurface under more conducive circumstances. For instance, a mixed group in Longu is making a serious effort to re-establish itself, now with more support from the town chief.

Possible Follow-up Activities

PPP groups face somewhat different issues today than is 1986. Groups are larger and more complex. There is an increased level of interest by other communities in starting groups, but services provided by Social Workers are limited by inadequate training and by poor transport. The economics of the area has changed, making adjustments in savings, credit, and group production necessary. There is high inflation, a banking crisis, and continuous changes in the relative prices of basic commodities and agricultural produce. Finally, many groups have undertaken community development projects with heavy subsidies from development agencies operating in the area. These groups must now make long term plans to cover maintenance costs of the projects and for alternative group activities when the development agencies eventually withdraw their support.

Suggestions for follow-up activities with PPP groups include:

Identify and support alternative income generating activities. While some groups have changed their income generating activities when the situation demanded it; others, such as the women’s soap making groups, have failed to come up with alternatives. Still others have talked about new activities, but are unsure of their potential for profit. Some possibilities include: upgrading blacksmiths, raising livestock, intensive vegetable gardening, introduction of power tillers, purchase of additional cassava grating machines, and expansion of community palm, cocoa and coffee plantations. Analysis should be carried out for each possible activity with regard to its potential for profit and its sustainability. Success will depend on: profitability, quality and availability of technical assistance, availability of capital investment, access to inputs and markets, group business skills, quality of group formation (McKone, 1989, p. 32).

Conduct workshops for group members to help them develop skills for long term planning. Subjects touched on should include: needs identification, financial planning, and broadening contacts with potential donors and other farmers’ groups. This is especially important in light of the fact that funding for many of the Pujehun area development agencies which support group activities is not guaranteed in the long run. BPRDP’s current funding extends only through 1991.

Promote the formation of IGAs to build on relationships that exist between groups and to forge new relationships. IGAs should increase the groups’ political voice, help them to acquire services from various agencies, strengthen their capacity to deal with a range of issues such as pest control, lack of market information, women’s problems, and local corruption. IGAs might help groups to achieve economies of scale in purchasing inputs, marketing produce, and hiring transport. There may even be potential for developing more powerful savings and credit societies.

Provide more management and leadership training, especially in light of larger average group size. Subjects to be covered should include: group dynamics, maintaining a participatory atmosphere in a large group, financial control, conflict resolution, and record keeping. Groups would also benefit from training in simple business skills, such as: how to calculate interest, improve marketing, keep stock records (especially for stores), and to plan for anticipated periods of hunger.

Increase the supply of inputs for farmers in the Pujehun area. This could be done through the promotion of private enterprise or through the public sector. Farmers are in need of tools, improved varieties of seeds, potato and cassava plantings, and fertilizers. Women complain of not being able to buy inputs for to make soap or do crafts. Depending on other interventions, a market could be developed for small scale machines and spare parts, such as rice threshers, cassava grating machines, and power tillers.

Facilitate the exchange of information in Pujehun through such activities as a “development fair” in which agencies providing funding for small scale projects would be invited to participate. This would raise awareness of groups and SDWs of possible sources of support, and to expose various agencies to the PPP approach.

Replication of PPP could be enhanced by the following activities:
Provide further training for SDWs in the PPP methodology. SDWs’ grasp of the PPP methodology varies and training is not systematic. Some SDWs have been trained by NTC, others by former PPP staff or word of mouth. SDWs would benefit from a more comprehensive and systematic treatment of the subject matter.

Provide support for the agro-technician and the women’s coordinator in Pujehun, whose responsibilities are to support activities of groups throughout the Pujehun district. They have no access to special funds, little means of identifying new technologies, and no effective means of transportation.

Conduct studies to determine how the PPP approach might be integrated into other development projects, NGOs, and government ministries in Sierra Leone as it has been integrated into the Moyamba FAO Inland Valley Swamp Project. This might be accomplished through a campaign to raise awareness about PPP achievements, followed by development of strategies for integration of the methodology into specific programs.

Promote the creation of an enabling “macro” framework through policy dialogue with the government, donor coordination, and development of human, market, and physical infrastructure. The potential for growth of groups and replication in Sierra Leone appears to be limited by the general disarray of the economy, the conflicting philosophies of numerous development organizations operating in the country, low salaries and poor motivation of government workers, poor transport and communications, and lack of inputs.


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