The main part of this book was written in the early nineties in Cuba, in the midst of a drastic and devastating cut-back in the importation of cereals and protein supplements destined for animal production. Within a 2–3 year time frame, the production of poultry, eggs, meat and milk dropped to approximately 30% of previous levels. Also, while animal production and productivity decreased, animal mortality drastically increased.
The “conclusions” of this book were written some 2–3 years after the main chapters. This was a fortuitous accident because the new economic situation left the author more convinced than ever of the need to develop a simple and farmer-friendly pig production system for the island. It became a personal challenge and objective, and re-enforced a previous held observation about small-size pig operations in the Caribbean, and perhaps generally in the tropics, that most pig farmers just want an economic result, but with locally-available resources, and will gladly accept a feeding system entailing a lower biological performance if only their pigs grow. If the following ideas are valid for other pig producers in the tropics, then the objective shall have been achieved.
Conventional Approach to Pig Production
Pigs in the tropics, between 50 and 110 kg, do not have to eat 3.11 kg of concentrates, generally imported and consisting of 80% maize and 20% soybean meal and convert this at a rate of 3.79 in order to grow 820 g/day (NRC 1988). Actually, most pigs in the tropics probably grow at half this rate. The information set out in Table 1 suggests that in the tropics there are a surprising number of potential and viable sources of energy that might be used, in fact, several appear even as highly efficient, and even more economically attractive, than the cereal-based system. The other fact is that cereals, or grains, are becoming scarcer, therefore more expensive, and soon may be prohibitive for industrial producers of pork, even in temperate zones.
In this regard, in a recent article related to facing food scarcity, it was emphasized that world grain production, after tripling from 1950 to 1990, has not gained at all since 1990, largely because crops cannot effectively use more fertilizer. In fact, land is slowing losing its productivity. This, in addition to the fact that 90 million people are added to the global population each year, and that grain normally accounts for half of human caloric intake, could mean that conventional, grain-based livestock production systems will eventually require modification (Brown 1995).
Zero-grain pig production systems
When using conventional grain-based rations for pigs, approximately one-half of the protein comes from the cereal component (Chapter 3). However, in the case of the feeding systems referred to in Table 1 in which the energy and protein components are offered separately (Preston and Murguecitio 1992), due to the invariable low level of protein in the basal diet, almost all the essential amino acids must be supplied by the supplement. Preston (1995) has argued that this could be an advantage because:
when the total amount of protein offered is derived almost wholly from supplements, rather than partially from cereal grains, it is better balanced in the essential amino acids, and
it is easier, and may be cheaper, to find a supplement already balanced with respect to the essential amino acids than compensate for the imbalance in the amino acid profile present in cereal grains.
An additional consideration now under study is that a faster growth rate, per se, one which would invariably involve feeding a biological optimum supply of dietary protein is not necessarily the most profitable. The authors of the information presented in Table 2, reporting the results of similar types of experiments carried out in different countries but using different energy sources, have, in their respective papers, pointed out this important aspect. In all cases, the most profitable experimental treatments (*) were those that used a more restricted amount of protein.
| System | % energy as DM | Liveweight (kg) | ADG (g) | DM conversion | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Maize | 80 | 50–110 | 820 | 3.40 | NRC |
| (1988) | |||||
| Fresh cassava | 60–70 | 20–100 | 650–790 | 2.80–3.00 | Manner et al. |
| (1977) | |||||
| Cooked sweet | 73 | 30–85 | 770 | 3.50–3.80 | Dominguez et al. |
| potato | (1991) | ||||
| Ripe bananas | 66–71 | 30–90 | 560–570 | 4.50–4.60 | Solis et al. |
| (1985) | |||||
| Palm press fiber | 78 | 20–90 | 500–550 | 4.50–5.00 | Ocampo et al. |
| (1990b) | |||||
| Sugar palm juice | 80 | 50–80 | 500 | - | Preston |
| (1995) | |||||
| Sugar cane juice | 80 | 30–90 | 650–700 | 3.50–4.00 | Sarria et al. |
| (1990) | |||||
| B molasses | 70 | 30–90 | 500–550 | 4.00–4.50 | Cervantes et al. |
| (1984) | |||||
| C molasses | 70 | 30–90 | 400–450 | 5.00–5.50 | Cervantes et al. |
| (1984) | |||||
| Processed swill | 100 | 25–90 | 430 | 4.00 | González et al. |
| (1984) |
| Energy source | Supplement (kg/d) ADG (g) | Country & Source | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sugar cane juice | 0.45* | 0.68 | 0.90 | Dominican Republic |
| 838 | 840 | 830 | Estrella et al. 1986 | |
| Sugar cane juice | 0.47 | 0.52* | 0.66 | Colombia |
| 622 | 736 | 670 | Moreno (1989) cited by | |
| Sarria 1990 | ||||
| Sugar cane juice | 0.30* | 0.80 | - | Vietnam |
| 542 | 684 | - | Bul Huy Nhu Phuc et al. | |
| 1994 | ||||
| Palm press fiber | 0.50* | 0.57* | 0.64 | Colombia |
| 505 | 545 | 532 | Ocampo et al. 1990b | |
| Boiled sweet potato | 0.24* | 0.50 | - | Cuba |
| 640 | 770 | - | Dominguez et al. | |
| (1991) | ||||
Available protein supplements
The following are protein supplements (both computer and non-computer designed!) which have been used to provide the requirements for amino acids for growing-finishing pigs on “separate energy/separate protein” types of diets in different countries:
A quantity equal to 40% by dry weight of the daily ration. The supplement was: soybean meal, 24.5%; fishmeal, 33.8%; alfalfa meal, 26.7%; wheat bran, 12.5%; calcium carbonate, 0.875%; salt, 0.175%; DL-methionine 0.275% and 1% of a mineral-vitamin premix (Speedy et al. 1991, fed with sugar cane juice in Swaziland).
The amount of 500 g/day of a supplement of: soybean meal, 86%; dicalcium phosphate, 10%; salt, 2% and 2% of a mineral-vitamin premix (Ocampo 1994b) fed with African oil palm in Colombia.
An amount of 500 g/day of a supplement of: soybean meal, 91%; minerals, 6%; salt, 1% and 2% of a vitamin premix (Ngoan Le Duc 1994) fed with a mixture of sugar cane juice and palm oil in Colombia.
One shovelful, twice daily, of cooked chicken heads and guts fed with free-choice diluted B molasses in Trinidad and Tobago (FAO, 1993). Approximately one kilogram, twice daily, of fish silage (Chapter 6) fed with fresh cassava in the rainy season and fresh cane juice in the dry season (author's personal experience in Cuba)
Some 4—5 kg or about 15 plants (approximately one linear meter/pig/day) of soybean forage, fed with fresh sugar cane juice, reconstituted sugar cane juice (each 1 kg low-grade sugar mixed with 2 kg water), diluted B or C molasses or freshly-harvested cassava roots (Pérez 1995). At press, the system shown in Fig. 1 is gaining momentum in Cuba. As a system, it is very versatile, since excess or older forage can be sun-dried and used as hay for rabbits or ruminants. After eight or nine. weekly-sown plots have been planted, the forage in plot no. 1 is still in the milk-stage, does not yet contain the anti-nutritional factor (trypsin inhibitor) and therefore can be used directly for pigs, ducks, even chickens. The length of the rows corresponds to the number of pigs to feed; for instance, 10 pigs might require plots of 10-meter length rows.
Fig. 1 Soybean forageL 7-row/9-plot system
Sugar cane system
Sugar cane whencrushed using a 2–3 roll-mill is composed (on an air-dry basis) of: cane tops, 15%; trash, 5%; sugar cane juice, 40% and pressed cane stalks, 40%; therefore, in order to be economically viable, a feeding system based on sugar cane requires the integration of pigs, ducks and ruminants, both monogastrics and poligastrics.
The “fractionation” of sugar cane for feed and fuel was first proposed in 1986 in the Dominican Republic during an FAO Expert Consultation (Preston 1988). Since then, it has been shown that free-choice sugar cane juice and a restricted amount of a protein supplement can be used for pigs, while the cane tops, the pressed cane stalks, a controlled amount of protein forage and free-choice molasses-urea blocks can be used for feeding ruminants.
The following information definitely supports the economics of sugar cane “fractionation”, that is, the separation of the juice from the fiber in order to obtain two feed resources. An average amount of 28 kg of whole sugar cane was chopped and used solely as ruminant feed or pressed to extract the juice for pigs before the stalks and tops were fed to a group of heifers. The pigs received a daily average of 0.5 kg of soybean meal and 10 kg of fresh cane juice. The heifers on the “leftover fiber diet”, received a daily average of 12 kg of pressed stalks, 6 kg of cane tops, 9 kg of protein forage, 0.6 kg rice bran and 0.4 kg of poultry litter. In addition, they consumed 0.7 kg of multinutrient blocks, daily. The control (whole cane) diet, also fed to heifers, consisted of 28 kg of chopped, whole sugar cane, in addition to the same ingredients fed to the heifers on the experimental ration. The result, presented as Figure 2, show that the same 28 Kg of whole cane, “fractionated”, produced a total of 1100 g liveweight gain, 500 g with cattle and 600 g with pigs, or almost double the 765 g liveweight gain produced on the whole cane ration. (Molina et al. 1995).
Figure 2. Type of cane
Sugar palm system
Recently, in Cambodia, it has been shown that palm sugar juice can be used to feed pigs, similar to the use of sugar cane juice for pigs in Vietnam(Bui Huy Nhu Phuc et al. 1994) and Latin America (Sarria et al. 1990). The juice contains approximately 13% sucrose and one tree produces about 4 liters of juice daily which could mean the need for 2 trees/pig/day, approximately. Because the production of palm sugar is basically from December to June in Cambodia, it might be interesting to group-breed the sows so as to produce a sizable number of weaned piglets to correspond with the beginning of the palm juice season, similar to the proposal in the first chapter of this book using cane juice. The protein supplement used was 300 g/day of soybeans, soaked overnight and boiled for 30 minutes. The ADG was almost 500 grams (Preston 1995).
Banana/plantain system
Wherever bananas are grown on a large scale, there is a considerable amount, approximately 10%, of energy-rich, reject material constantly available and this amount could represent more than 3 t/hectare, annually. Bananas, however, contain only 5% protein which limits them as an important pig feed. Another problem is that where bananas are grown generally there are limited amounts of other protein resources, it's really only bananas. In Cuba, the former solution employed was to transport the unripened, reject bananas to swill-processing plants, and process them into “liquid feed” for delivery to the pig feedlots (Chapter 6). With the present tightened economic situation, meaning less gasoline, fewer trucks and tires, in addition to the new and promising use of soybean forage as a protein supplement (Chapter 2), this situation is rapidly changing. The present idea involves setting up small pig fattening units, in the middle of the banana plantations, adjacent to the weighing and grading stations; one pig pen is enclosed and used as a banana ripening room. The protein is planted alongside: plots of soybeans (Fig.3). The proposed daily diet for pigs between 30–90 kg is 8–10 kg of ripe bananas and 4–5 kg (10–15 plants or one meter) of soybean forage in milk-stage prior to the expression of the trypsin inhibitor.
Fig 3. Pigs integrated in the bananna plantations
African palm system
The list of alternative feed resources for pigs in the tropics would not be complete without mentioning the recent and fascinating new contributions from Colombian researchers on the use of different products from the African oil palm for pigs, including perhaps, in the case of the farmer with one or two palms, the use of the whole fruit. In less than 5 years, an entirely new “African oil palm/pig” concept has emerged, has been studied, and the results have been disseminated world-wide (CIPAV/LRRD). The concept is similar to the use of sugarcane products (fresh juice, molasses, scums, low-grade sugar) fed free-choice along with a restricted amount of protein supplement, in fact, no doubt, the sugar cane path to tropical pig sustainability helped open the door to the use of the African palm. It has now been shown that a restricted amount, 500 g, of a soybean meal-based supplement together with free-choice oil-press fiber (Ocampo et al. 1990a), crude oil (Ocampo 1994b) or the fresh fruit (Ocampo 1994a) can completely replace cereals for pigs.
References
Brown, L.R. 1995. Facing Food Searcity. World Watch Vol. 8,No.6 10–20
Bui Huy Nhu Phuc, Ogle, B. and Preston, T.R. 1994. Effect of protein level in reconstituted sugar cane juice-based diets for growing pigs. In: Proceedings of National Seminar-Workshop “Sustainable Livestock Production on Local Feed Resources” (Editors: T. R. Preston, B. Ogle, Le Viet Ly and Lu Trong Hieu) Ho Chi Minh City, November 22–27, 1993 pp 45–50.
Cervantes, A. et al. 1984. Utilización de distintos tipos de mieles de caña suplementadas con levadura torula en crema para cerdos en ceba. Cienc. Tec. Agric.Ganado Porcino 7:21
CIPA V/LRRD: Livestock Research for Rural Development Vol 1(1989) to Vol. 8 (1996) Cali, Colombia
Dominguez, P. L., Cervantes, A., Mederos, C.M., Frómeta, M. and Castellanos, M. 1991. Uso del tubérculo y la parte aérea del boniato (Ipomoea batatas (L) Lam) en la alimentación de los cerdos en ceba. Resúmenes IV Congreso ALVEC. La Habana, Cuba. NA-6
Estrella, J. F., Mena, A. and Uen, B. 1986. Evaluación de proteína para cerdos en la fase de finalización en dietas a base de jugo de caña fresca. Centro Investigaciones Pecuarias Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
FAO, 1993. Terminal Statement of Technical Cooperation Project in Trinidad and Tobago (TCP/TRI/0153) “Sugarcane for Livestock Feeding”. FAO, Rome
González, J., Díaz, C.P., Domínguez, P.L., Ly, J. and Torres, Y. 1984. Evaluación de los desperdicios procesados como sustituto del pienso comercial para cerdos en ceba. Cienc. Tec. Agric. Ganado Porcino 7(4):57–74
Maner, J.H., Buitrago, J., Portela, R. and Jimenez, I. 1977. La yuca en la alimentación de cerdos. Bogotá, ICA pp 116
Mena, A. 1981. El uso de jugo de caña como fuente de energía en la alimentación de cerdos. Universidad de Yucatán Mérida México Thesis: Master of Tropical Animal Science
Molina, C.C.H., Molina, D.C.H., Molina, D.E.J. and Molina D.J.P. 1995 Producción de carne bovina y porcina con base en la utilización de la caña de azúcar. CIPAV, Cali, Colombia.
Ngoan Le Duc, 1994 The use of African palm (Elaeis guinnencis) oil as an energy source for pigs. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. M. Sc. thesis. Uppsala.
NRC, 1988 Nutrient Requeriment of Domestic Animales. Nutrient Requirement of Swine, 9th revised ed. National Academy Press, Washington
Ocampo, A., Lozano, E. and Reyes, E. 1990a. Utilización de la cachaza de palma africana como fuente de energía en el levante, desarrollo y ceba de cerdos. Livest. Res. Rur. Dev. 2(1): 43–50
Ocampo, A., Castro, C. and Alfonso, L. 1990b Determination del nivel óptimo de proteína al utilizar cachaza de palma Africana como fuente de energía en raciones para cerdos de engorde. Livest. Res. Rur. Dev. 2(2):67–76
Ocampo, A. 1994a Utilizacion del fruto de palma Africana como fuente de energia con niveles restringidos de proteina en la alimentacion de cerdos de engorde. Livest. Res. Rur. Dev. 6(1): 1–7
Ocampo, A. 1994b. Raw palm oil as the energy source in pig fattening diets and Azolla filiculoides as a substitute for soya bean meal. Livest. Res. Rur. Dev. 6(1): 8–17
Pérez, R 1995. CARTA AGROPECUARIA AZUCARERA No.95.5: EI forrage verde del frijol de soya como fuente proteica. Minaz
Preston, T. R. 1988. Fractionation of sugarcane for feed and fuel. In: Sugarcane as feed. Proceedings of an FAO Expert Consultation July 7–11, 1986 (Editors: R. Sansoucy, G. Aarts and T. R. Preston) Santa Domingo, Dominican Republic pp 310–319
Preston, T. R 1995. Tropical animal feeding: a manual for research workers. FAO Animal Production and Health Paper, FAO, Rome pp 305
Preston, T.R. and Murgueitio, E. 1992. Strategy for sustainable livestock production in the tropics. Centr. Inv. Siste. Sost. Prod. Agropec. Cali. pp 89
Sarria, P. 1990. La situación de la porcicultura en Colombia y el uso de recursos alimenticios tropicales como alternativa. pp. 22 En: Memorias Taller Regional FAO/IIP “Utilización de los recursos alimentarios en la producción porcina en América Latina y el Caribe” La Habana 21–25 de mayo
Sarria, P., Solano, A. and Preston, T.R 1990. Utilización de jugo de caña y cachaza panelera en la alimentación de cerdos. Livest. Res. Rur. Dev. 2(2):92– 100
Solis, J., Campabadal, C. and Ledezma, R. 1985. Evaluación de diferentes formas de suplir el banano en la alimentación de cerdos durante la etapa de crecimiento y engorde. Resúmenes X Reunión ALPA. Acapulco, Mexico. p 40
Speedy, A. W., Seward, L., Langton, N., Du Plessis, J. and Dlamini, B. 1991. A comparison of sugar cane juice and maize as energy sources in diets for growing pigs with equal supply of essential amino acids. Livest. Res. Rur. Dev. 3(1):65–73
FAO ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND HEALTH PAPERS
| 1 | Animal breeding: selected articles from the World Animal Review, |
| 1977 (C E F S) | |
| 2 | Eradication of hog cholera and African swine fever, 1976 (E F S) |
| 3 | Insecticides and application equipment for tsetse control, 1977 (E F) |
| 4 | New feed resources, 1977 (E/F/S) |
| 5 | Bibliography of the criollo cattle of the Americas, 1977 (E/S) |
| 6 | Mediterranean cattle and sheep in crossbreeding, 1977 (E F) |
| 7 | The environmental impact of tsetse control operations, 1977 (E F) |
| 7 Rev. 1 | The environmental impact of tsetse control operations, 1980 (E F) |
| 8 | Declining breeds of Mediterranean sheep, 1978 (E F) |
| 9 | Slaughterhouse and slaughterslab design and construction, 1978 (E F S) |
| 10 | Treating straw for animal feeding, 1978 (C E F S) |
| 11 | Packaging, storage and distribution of processed milk, 1978 (E) |
| 12 | Ruminant nutrition: selected articles from the World Animal Review, 1978 (C E F S) |
| 13 | Buffalo reproduction and artificial insemination, 1979 (E*) |
| 14 | The African trypanosomiases, 1979 (E F) |
| 15 | Establishment of dairy training centres, 1979 (E) |
| 16 | Open yard housing for young cattle, 1981 (Ar E F S) |
| 17 | Prolific tropical sheep, 1980 (E F S) |
| 18 | Feed from animal wastes: state of knowledge, 1980 (C E) |
| 19 | East Coast fever and related tick-borne diseases, 1980 (E) |
| 20/1 | Trypanotolerant livestock in West and Central Africa - Vol. 1. General study, 1980 (E F) |
| 20/2 | Trypanotolerant livestock in West and Central Africa - Vol. 2. Country studies, 1980 (E F) |
| 20/3 | Le bétail trypanotolérant en Afrique occidentale et centrale - Vol. 3. Bilan d'une décennie, 1988 (F) |
| 21 | Guideline for dairy accounting, 1980 (E) |
| 22 | Recursos genéticos animales en América Latina, 1981 (S) |
| 23 | Disease control in semen and embryos, 1981 (C E F S) |
| 24 | Animal genetic resources - conservation and management, 1981 (C E) |
| 25 | Reproductive efficiency in cattle, 1982 (C E F S) |
| 26 | Camels and camel milk, 1982 (E) |
| 27 | Deer farming, 1982 (E) |
| 28 | Feed from animal wastes: feeding manual, 1982 (C E) |
| 29 | Echinococcosis/hydatidosis surveillance, prevention and control:FAO/UNEP/WHO guidelines, 1982 (E) |
| 30 | Sheep and goat breeds of India, 1982 (E) |
| 31 | Hormones in animal production, 1982 (E) |
| 32 | Crop residues and agro-industrial by-products in animal feeding, 1982 (E/F) |
| 33 | Haemorrhagic septicaemia, 1982 (E F) |
| 34 | Breeding plans for ruminant livestock in the tropics, 1982 (E F S) |
| 35 | Off-tastes in raw and reconstituted milk, 1983 (Ar E F S) |
| 36 | Ticks and tick-borne diseases: selected articles from the World Animal Review, 1983 (E F S) |
| 37 | African animal trypanosomiasis: selected articles from the World Animal Review, 1983 (E F) |
| 38 | Diagnosis and vaccination for the control of brucellosis in the Near East, 1982 (Ar E) |
| 39 | Solar energy in small-scale milk collection and processing, 1983 (E F) |
| 40 | Intensive sheep production in the Near East, 1983 (Ar E) |
| 41 | Integrating crops and livestock in West Africa, 1983 (E F) |
| 42 | Animal energy in agriculture in Africa and Asia, 1984 (E/F S) |
| 43 | Olive by-products for animal feed, 1985 (Ar E F S) |
| 44/1 | Animal genetic resources conservation by management, data banks and training, 1984 (E) |
| 44/2 | Animal genetic resources: cryogenic storage of germplasm and molecular engineering, 1984 (E) |
| 45 | Maintenance systems for the dairy plant, 1984 (E) |
| 46 | Livestock breeds of China, 1984 (E F S) |
| 47 | Réfrigération du lait à la ferme et organisation des transports, 1985 (F) |
| 48 | La fromagerie et les variétés de fromages du bassin méditerranéen, 1985 (F) |
| 49 | Manual for the slaughter of small ruminants in developing countries, 1985 (E) |
| 50 | Better utilization of crop residues and by-products in animal feeding: research guidelines - 1. State of knowledge, 1985 (E) |
| 50/2 | Better utilization of crop residues and by-products in animal feeding:research guidelines - 2. A practical manual for research workers, 1986 (E) |
| 51 | Dried salted meats: charque and carne-de-sol, 1985 (E) |
| 52 | Small-scale sausage production, 1985 (E) |
| 53 | Slaughterhouse cleaning and sanitation, 1985 (E) |
| 54 | Small ruminants in the Near East - Vol. I. Selected papers presented for the Expert Consultation on Small Ruminant Research and Development in the Near East (Tunis, 1985), 1987 (E) |
| 55 | Small ruminants in the Near East - Vol. II. Selected articles from World Animal Review 1972-1986, 1987 (Ar E) |
| 56 | Sheep and goats in Pakistan, 1985 (E) |
| 57 | The Awassi sheep with special reference to the improved dairy type, 1985 (E) |
| 58 | Small ruminant production in the developing countries, 1986 (E) |
| 59/1 | Animal genetic resources data banks - 1. Computer systems study for regional data banks, 1986 (E) |
| 59/2 | Animal genetic resources data banks - 2. Descriptor lists for cattle, buffalo, pigs, sheep and goats, 1986 (E F S) |
| 59/3 | Animal genetic resources data banks - 3. Descriptor lists for poultry, 1986 (E F S) |
| 60 | Sheep and goats in Turkey, 1986 (E) |
| 61 | The Przewalski horse and restoration to its natural habitat in Mongolia, 1986 (E) |
| 62 | Milk and dairy products: production and processing costs, 1988 (E F S) |
| 63 | Proceedings of the FAO expert consultation on the substitution of imported concentrate feeds in animal production systems in developing countries, 1987 (C E) |
| 64 | Poultry management and diseases in the Near East, 1987 (Ar) |
| 65 | Animal genetic resources of the USSR, 1989 (E) |
| 66 | Animal genetic resources - strategies for improved use and conservation, 1987 (E) |
| 67/1 | Trypanotolerant cattle and livestock development in West and Central Africa - Vol. I, 1987 (E) |
| 67/2 | Trypanotolerant cattle and livestock development in West and Central Africa - Vol. II, 1987 (E) |
| 68 | Crossbreeding Bos indicus and Bos taurus for milk production in the tropics, 1987 (E) |
| 69 | Village milk processing, 1988 (E F S) |
| 70 | Sheep and goat meat production in the humid tropics of West Africa, 1989 (E/F) |
| 71 | The development of village-based sheep production in West Africa,
1988 (Ar E F S) (Published as Training manual for extension workers, M/S5840E) |
| 72 | Sugarcane as feed, 1988 (E/S) |
| 73 | Standard design for small-scale modular slaughterhouses, 1988 (E) |
| 74 | Small ruminants in the Near East - Vol. III. North Africa, 1989 (E) |
| 75 | The eradication of ticks, 1989 (E/S) |
| 76 | Ex situ cryoconservation of genomes and genes of endangered cattle breeds by means of modern biotechnological methods, 1989 (E) |
| 77 | Training manual for embryo transfer in cattle, 1991 (E) |
| 78 | Milking, milk production hygiene and udder health, 1989 (E) |
| 79 | Manual of simple methods of meat preservation, 1990 (E) |
| 80 | Animal genetic resources - a global programme for sustainable development, 1990 (E) |
| 81 | Veterinary diagnostic bacteriology - a manual of laboratory procedures of selected diseases of livestock, 1990 (E F) |
| 82 | Reproduction in camels - a review, 1990 (E) |
| 83 | Training manual on artificial insemination in sheep and goats, 1991 (E F) |
| 84 | Training manual for embryo transfer in water buffaloes, 1991 (E) |
| 85 | The technology of traditional milk products in developing countries, 1990 (E) |
| 86 | Feeding dairy cows in the tropics, 1991 (E) |
| 87 | Manual for the production of anthrax and blackleg vaccines, 1991 (E F) |
| 88 | Small ruminant production and the small ruminant genetic resource in tropical Africa, 1991 (E) |
| 89 | Manual for the production of Marek's disease, Gumboro disease and inactivated Newcastle disease vaccines, 1991 (E F) |
| 90 | Application of biotechnology to nutrition of animals in developing countries, 1991 (E F) |
| 91 | Guidelines for slaughtering, meat cutting and further processing, 1991 (E F) |
| 92 | Manual on meat cold store operation and management, 1991 (E S) |
| 93 | Utilization of renewable energy sources and energy-saving technologies by small-scale milk plants and collection centres, 1992 (E) |
| 94 | Proceedings of the FAO expert consultation on the genetic aspects of trypanotolerance, 1992 (E) |
| 95 | Roots, tubers, plantains and bananas in animal feeding, 1992 (E) |
| 96 | Distribution and impact of helminth diseases of livestock in developing countries, 1992 (E) |
| 97 | Construction and operation of medium-sized abattoirs in developing countries, 1992 (E) |
| 98 | Small-scale poultry processing, 1992 (Ar E) |
| 99 | In situ conservation of livestock and poultry, 1992 (E) |
| 100 | Programme for the control of African animal trypanosomiasis and related development, 1992 (E) |
| 101 | Genetic improvement of hair sheep in the tropics, 1992 (E) |
| 102 | Legume trees and other fodder trees as protein sources for livestock, 1992 (E) |
| 103 | Improving sheep reproduction in the Near East, 1992 (Ar) |
| 104 | The management of global animal genetic resources, 1992 (E) |
| 105 | Sustainable livestock production in the mountain agro-ecosystem of Nepal, 1992 (E) |
| 106 | Sustainable animal production from small farm systems in South-East Asia, 1993 (E) |
| 107 | Strategies for sustainable animal agriculture in developing countries, 1993 (E F) |
| 108 | Evaluation of breeds and crosses of domestic animals, 1993 (E) |
| 109 | Bovine spongiform encephalopathy, 1993 (Ar E) |
| 110 | L'amélioration génétique des bovins en Afrique de I'Ouest, 1993 (F) |
| 111 | L'utilización sostenible de hembras F1 en la producción del ganado lechero tropical, 1993 (S) |
| 112 | Physiologie de la reproduction des bovins trypanotolérants, 1993 (F) |
| 113 | La technologie des fromages au lait de dromadaire (Camelus dromedarius), 1993 (F) |
| 114 | Food losses due to non-infectious and production diseases in developing countries, 1993 (E) |
| 115 | Manuel de formation pratique pour la transplantation embryonnaire chez la brebis et la chévre, 1993 (S) |
| 116 | Quality control of veterinary vaccines in developing countries, 1993 (E) |
| 117 | L'hygiène dans l'industrie alimentaire, 1993 - Les produits et l'aplication de l'hygiène, 1993 (F) |
| 118 | Quality control testing of rinderpest cell culture vaccine, 1994 (E) |
| 119 | Manual on meat inspection for developing countries, 1994 (E) |
| 120 | Manual para la instalación del pequeño matadero modular de la FAO, 1994 (S) |
| 121 | A systematic approach to tsetse and trypanosomiasis control, 1994 (E/F) |
| 122 | El capibara (Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris) - Estado actual de su producción, 1994 (S) |
| 123 | Edible by-products of slaughter animals, 1995 (E S) |
| 124 | L'approvisionnement des villes africaines en lait et produits laitiers, 1995 (F) |
| 125 | Veterinary education, 1995 (E) |
| 126 | Tropical animal feeding - A manual for research workers, 1995 (E) |
| 127 | World livestock production systems - Current status, issues and trends, 1996 (E) |
| 128 | Quality control testing of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia live attenuated vaccine - Standard operating procedures, 1996 (E F) |
| 129 | The world without rinderpest, 1996 (E) |
| 130 | Manual de prácticas de manejo de alpacas y llamas, 1996 (S) |
| 131 | Les perspectives de développement de la filière lait de chèvre dans le bassin méditerranéen, 1996 (F) |
| 132 | Feeding pigs in the tropics, 1997 (E) |
| 133 | Prevention and control of transboundary animal diseases, 1997 (E) |
Availability: February 1997
| Ar - Arabic | Multil - Multilingual |
| C - Chinese | * Out of print |
| E - English | ** In preparation |
| F - French | |
| P - Portuguese | |
| S - Spanish |
The FAO Technical Papers are available through the authorized FAO Sales Agents or directly from Sales and Marketing Group, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
