3.1.1 China¹

The low per caput share of land resources in China is likely to be inadequate to meet the increasing demand for animal protein. Per caput agricultural land decreased from 0.19 ha in 1949 to 0.09 ha in 1995 (Wu, 1996). This, together with recent concerns on declining wild fish stocks, has focused Chinese fishery development policies on expanding inland, brackishwater and marine aquaculture (Qian, 1994).

The significance of Chinese aquaculture only became evident in the 1950s. Prior to this time, the Yangtze and Pearl River deltas were the principal areas for fish culture, producing some 15,000 mt annually in the 1940s. Since the 1950s, and particularly since the 1980s, the culture of fish in fresh-, brackish- and marine waters has expanded rapidly in all but two provinces, Qingha and Xizang (Tibet), where the harsh climate and topography of the Tibet-Qingha plateau limits production (Qian, 1994). By 1995, annual production reached 17.6 million mt of aquatic finfish, shellfish and plants, valued at US$16.3 thousand million (billion), from a total of around 6.4 million ha in inland and marine areas.

Figure 3.1.1.1.
China continues to dominate global aquaculture with 63.4% of world aquaculture production in 1995. China accounted for 70.4% of Asian production in 1995, but only 47.3% of its value, due to the relatively low value of cultured species, mainly carps. The output of Chinese fisheries (capture and culture) increased at an APR of 13.0 between 1984 and 1995. This increase, however, was not linear; between 1990 and 1995, Chinese fisheries production increased at an APR of 16.0. The greater part of this increase was due to aquaculture: an APR of 18.5 compared with 12.7 for capture fisheries. The contribution of aquaculture to Chinese fisheries increased from 51.6% in 1990 to 60.5% in 1995, during which period aquaculture production rose from 7.5 million mt to 17.6 million mt, or from a value of US$4 thousand million to US$16.3 thousand million (Figure 3.1.1.1).

Between 1984 and 1995, the total tonnage from fresh-, brackish- and marine waters reported as aquaculture increased at an APR of 13.6, 13.5 and 16.1, respectively, and in 1995 totalled 9.4 million mt, 0.1 million mt and 8.1 million mt, respectively. During this period, the value of cultured aquatic products from freshwater, brackishwater and marine environments increased at an APR of 13.9, 13.4 and 17, respectively, and in 1995 reached values of US$8.4 thousand million, US$0.6 thousand million and US$7.3 thousand million, respectively.

Figure 3.1.1.2.

Figure 3.1.1.3.
The ranking of Chinese provinces in freshwater production recorded as aquaculture in 1995 is shown in Figure 3.1.1.2. The highest ranked provinces, Guangdong, Hubei and Jiangsu, produced 1.48, 1.31 and 1.29 million mt of freshwater fish, respectively, in 1995. The national average growth rate of freshwater aquaculture in all Chinese provinces during 1992-1995 was 20%, with the average APR of individual provinces ranging from 4 to 43. Provinces with a lower production base have tended to expand at a faster rate (Figure 3.1.1.3).

 In keeping with Chinese policy of developing inland aquaculture as a strategy for rural industrial development, and to meet the demands for inland and northern conurbations, freshwater aquaculture has expanded rapidly northwards since the 1980s into northeastern, western and northern regions to provinces such as Hebei, Henan, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia, Gansu, Ningxia, Qinghai and Xinjiang. In 1995, these provinces accounted for around 0.9 million mt or 9.5% of national freshwater fish production. Even though production from the   inland provinces was relatively low (1,000-35,0000 mt), the sector expanded by 12-26% per year between 1992 and 1995. Production of freshwater fish in the northern provinces was higher: Heilongjiang, Liaoning and Jilin, where annual production from 1992 to 1995 increased by 16%, 22% and 10%, respectively, reported 2.01, 1.58 and 0.78 million mt of freshwater fish, respectively, in 1995 (Lem, 1997).

Figure 3.1.1.4.

Ponds and reservoirs are the principal types of water bodies used for freshwater aquaculture production and in 1995, 1.86 and 1.51 million ha, respectively, were exploited for aquaculture (Zhao, 1997). In the last five years, increased production has also been achieved through increased yields. For ponds, national average yield has increased from 1,390 kg/ha in 1985 to around 4,000 kg/ha in 1995. In Guangdong, pond yields of over 6,600 kg/ha were attained in 1995. Ponds accounted for 73% or 6.9 million mt of freshwater production in 1995 (Zhao, 1997).

Figure 3.1.1.5.
To meet the growing national demand for high-value marine products, an increasing proportion of the available 2.6 million ha of inter-tidal mudflats, shallow seabeds and bays is being developed for aquaculture. Between 1985 and 1995, the total area used for mariculture rose on average by 10% per year from 277,000 ha to 715,000 ha (Figure 3.1.1.5, modified from Qian, 1994; Anon.,1996; Anon., 1997; Zhao, 1997). Between 1992 and 1995, annual expansion of mariculture increased to 13.4%. All coastal provinces have expanded their mariculture activities, especially Liaoning and Shangdong in the north and Jiangsu, Fujian and Guangdong provinces in the south. Nationally, emphasis has been placed on expanding culture in shallow seas and inter-tidal mudflats. The area of shallow seas, bays and inter-tidal mud flats under culture increased from 87,000 ha, 155,000 ha and 345,000 ha, respectively, in 1993 to 131,000 ha, 159,000 ha and 425,000 ha in 1995 (Figure 3.1.1.5). During this period, the area of shallow seas and mudflats used mainly for shellfish production, expanded annually at 23% and 11% , respectively.

Figure 3.1.1.6a
Recent production of major groups of aquatic organisms is shown in Figure 3.1.1.6a. Freshwater finfish production has shown rapid growth since 1991 and is the largest aquaculture activity; in 1995, it accounted for 53% of total aquaculture production. Aquatic plant production stabilized after 1993, and in 1995 represented 27% of total aquaculture production.

Figure 3.1.1.6b.

In recent years, China has reported production data of ten freshwater, one brackishwater and seven marine species to FAO. In addition, an increasing quantity of unidentified cultured freshwater fishes has also been reported: 645,000 mt in 1995. Similarly, for marine organisms, unidentified finfish and shellfish, and plants in 1995 reached 1.1 million mt and 634,000 mt, respectively.

Carp and tilapia species, which are farmed across China, continue to dominate production. Emphasis has been given in recent years to diversify into luxury freshwater species such as mandarin fish, freshwater crabs and prawns, soft shelled turtles and eels. In 1995, the carps accounted for around 99.7% of freshwater fish production and represented 52% and 45% of national aquaculture production by tonnage and value, respectively. Production of silver, grass, common and bighead carps totalled 2.47, 2.07, 1.40 and 1.24 million mt, respectively.

The production of Chinese marine finfish and shellfish, and plants has also increased, on average by 13.6% per year during 1984-1995. Finfish and shellfish production expanded at a fairly uniform annual rate of 22.5%. Annual growth in aquatic plant production accelerated from less than 1% during 1984 to 1990, to 21.8% from 1990 to 1995. The increase in plant production has not been consistent, however. Between 1990 and 1991, production of kelp, laver and unidentified plants increased by 46%, 120% and 46%, respectively. Between 1994 and 1995, the increase was only 2%, 6% and -6%, respectively.

Figure 3.1.1.8
The expansion of production from the marine environment has been mainly from invertebrate filter feeders such as the Yesso scallop, Japanese carpet shell, Pacific cupped oyster, razor clams and blood cockle (Figure 3.1.1.8), and from plants. The production of cultured filter-feeding invertebrates increased at an APR of 22 from 1984 to 1995, and in 1995, 3.1 million mt were reported. For non-filter-feeding invertebrates, such as marine crabs and other crustaceans, the APR rose dramatically from 8 during 1984-1990 to 70 from 1990 to 1995. In 1995, production of 62,000 mt of crabs and other crustaceans was reported. Total production of filter-feeding invertebrates and plants reached 3.1 million mt and 4.8 million mt, respectively, in 1995 and represented 38.2% and 59.3%, respectively, of total marine production.

Figure 3.1.1.9
In the last five years, the rates at which the production of popular freshwater species, such as most carps (Figure 3.1.1.9) has been expanding is levelling off. Carp production increased sharply from 1991 to 1992--silver and bighead carp by 13%, and grass carp, common carp, crucian carp and white amur by 16-19%. Following a peak increase in 1993-1994, the production expansion of some carps, notably grass carp, silver carp and white amur, decreased.

Figure 3.1.1.10.

Although China's aquaculture production increased five fold between 1984 and 1995, the insatiable demand of its increasing population for high- and low-value aquatic products may not be met in the medium to long term. At present China is a net importer of fish. To address the shortfall in supply, China has made notable strides at the national, provincial and farm levels in transforming traditional fish farms into modern aquaculture operations with more intensive production, and expanding the area under culture. In the last decade, however, the rapid transformation to a market economy has highlighted several shortcomings in the sector: a) incomplete control of licencing for small-scale farms on private lands; b) competition with other industrial sectors for land and aquatic resources, particularly in coastal regions; c) inadequate infrastructure for the rapidly expanding sector; d) degradation of water quality and culture environments through urbanization, industrialization and uncontrolled intensification; e) limited processing capacity for aquaculture products; f) slow or, in some cases, no implementation of market-oriented policies on price deregulation; g) inadequate fish distribution system; h) managers and workers inadequately trained for modern operations; i) unpredictable fluctuations in the quantity and quality of seed, particularly of high-value freshwater and marine finfish and shellfish species; and j) poorly maintained culture facilities (Qian, 1994; Heping, 1995; Anon., 1996; Anon.,1997).

All these constraints are being addressed on an ongoing basis, but a few major constraints are likely to determine the stability of aquaculture development. One is the limited availability of choice sites near national and international markets. The expansion of aquaculture may strongly depend on government policies and their implementation related to controlling the quality of the aquatic environment. At present, water quality of several lakes and reservoirs, sections of rivers near cities, and some coastal areas has deteriorated as a result of uncontrolled industrial effluent and domestic discharge. Although hypernutrification and eutrophication, the most serious problems of lakes and rivers, can be beneficial to production, the resultant high oxygen deficits and microbial loading have resulted in high fish losses. The impact on coastal aquaculture of such deterioration, together with that of other contaminants from industrial discharges such as toxic chemicals, heavy metals and organic pollutants, will probably have a significant bearing on the expansion of finfish, shellfish and plant culture. The increasing frequency of red tides, which devastated shrimp farms in Bohai Bay causing an estimated Yuan 400 million loss in 1989 alone, poses a serious threat to development. Similar red tides in 1987 also damaged kelp farms (Heping, 1995). In 1995, economic losses arising from contamination of fish-breeding areas, rivers and shallow seas were estimated at Yuan 560 million (Wu, 1996). These losses, and those likely from banning consumer sales of contaminated products, may increase risk in production and reduce the much-needed confidence and capital influx required to modernize the industry. Under such circumstances, future development will need to be linked closely to monitoring of the environment and provide for compensation for losses caused by activities outside the sector. At the farm level, attempts to increase yields from ponds may be hampered by a shortage of feeds and lack of pond maintenance.

The prognosis for growth is good, despite the constraints given above. The decentralization of aquaculture management and the open-door policy have provided an appropriate framework for increased production. The huge internal market, which is unlikely to be satisfied, and the potential for exporting high-value aquatic products, provide considerable scope for expanding aquaculture.

To overcome the constraints of land shortage, an increasing proportion of the 3 million ha of low-lying and saline-alkaline lands that are unsuitable for agriculture is being developed for aquaculture with assistance from external funding from agencies such as the World Food Programme and World Bank. The success of this strategy, however, is likely to depend on controlling the increasing volume of industrial pollutants originating from rural urbanization. Ponds continue to be renovated and deepened to increase yields. Ongoing attempts to optimize traditional integrated aquaculture and adopt eco-friendly practices have also helped to sustain and increase production.

To meet the new demands of expansion and intensification, more than 1,000 small-scale hatcheries and nurseries, 50 medium- and small-scale feedmills, and many small workshops have been established (Qian, 1994). In 1995, around 7.6 million mt of fish feed (mainly from imported supply) was produced and by the year 2000, 19 million mt will be required to meet the projected increase in production (Anon., 1997). (Estimates of future compound feed requirements vary--see Section 2.2, Aquafeeds and Feeding Strategies.)

For small-scale farmers of shrimp, eels, and mandarin fish, and other farmers producing high-value species, fluctuations in cost, supply and quality of fry, costs of increased feed, medication and other inputs, price fluctuations of end products and standards for high-quality export products, have increased investment risk. The government's encouragement of private investment and formation of joint ventures with foreign companies will continue to improve technology transfer and reduce some of these risks (Qian, 1994; Anon., 1996).

Anon. 1996. China Fishery 95. Beijing, Bureau of Fisheries, Ministry of Agriculture, People’s Republic of China. 22p.

Anon. 1997. Aquaculture development and prospects in southern China. WorldFish Report 39:3-5. Heping, A. 1995. Country Report: People’s Republic of China, p.91-112. In Report on a Regional Study and Workshop on the Environmental Assessment and Management of Aquaculture Development (TCP/RAS/2253). NACA Environment and Aquaculture Development Series No. 1. Bangkok, Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific.

Lem, A. 1997. FAO common carp report. FAO Internal report. 11p

Qian, Z. (ed.). 1994. The Development of the Chinese Fisheries and Manpower in Aquaculture. Beijing, Agricultural Press China. 212p.

Wu, Y. 1996. Pollution threatens fisheries. China Daily, 25th August 1996, p8.

Zhao, W. 1997. Research on sustainable development of aquaculture in China. Paper prepared for the first meeting of the FAO/APFIC Aquaculture and Inland Fisheries Committee (AIFIC). 22p.