Survey of household income and relative contribution of forests
Two surveys were carried out to examine, in more detail, the extent of dependence on forests. A smaller in-depth survey of 10 households in 8 tribal villages (Daddugula, Achampeta, Malivalasa, Vankachinta, Gannela, Malakapalem, Dingriput, and Nandigaruvu) was conducted to examme the various sources of income and the relative importance of income from NWFPs. A larger survey of all the 40 households in the 2 hamlets of Nimmalapadu village was also conducted by the staff of Samata, a local NGO working on tribal development issues.
A summary of the relative contribution of agriculture and forests to tribal household income is given in Table 2. For each household, data on total income as well as the total expenditure were obtained. Wages earned from agriculture and forest-related activities are included in the total income earned from agriculture and forests. Even in Malivalasa, Sovva Panchayat, where forests are virtually absent, 13.29 percent of income of one household was directly derived from forest products. In 6 of the 10 households, income from forests comprised more than 50 percent of the total household income. The proportion of income from forests ranged from a low of 13.29 percent to a high of 77.X2 percent (Figure 1). In spite of income from forests, some households could not meet their annual expenditures and had to take loans from other tribals or money lenders.
Mother and children engaged in daily chores.
Table 2. Income Source of Tribal Households: Agricultural Income versus Income from Forests (in Indian Rupees)
Village |
Agri. Income |
NWFP Income |
Total Income |
% NWFP Income |
% Agri. Income |
Total Expenses |
% Loan / Surplus |
Daddugula |
8,300 |
10,000 |
18,300 |
54.64 |
45.36 |
18,000 |
1.64 |
Achampeta |
8,650 |
30,350 |
39,000 |
77.82 |
22.18 |
37,800 |
3.08 |
Malivalasa |
13,050 |
2,000 |
15,050 |
13.29 |
86.71 |
15,050 |
0.00 |
Malivalasa |
12,300 |
2,100 |
14,400 |
14.58 |
85.42 |
15,200 |
-5.56 |
Vankachinta |
5 220 |
8 600 |
13 820 |
62.23 |
37 77 |
15 450 |
-11.79 |
Gannela |
7,000 |
2,800 |
9,800 |
28.57 |
71.43 |
14,380 |
-46.73 |
Malakapalm |
10,980 |
14,030 |
25,010 |
56.10 |
43.90 |
19,900 |
20.43 |
Dingriput |
6,900 |
5,800 |
12,700 |
45.67 |
54.33 |
13,500 |
-6.30 |
Dingriput |
2,400 |
2,500 |
4 900 |
51.02 |
48 98 |
5 820 |
-18.78 |
Nandigaruvu |
6,200 |
6,880 |
13,080 |
52.60 |
47.40 |
13,080 |
0.00 |
Figure 1. Relative Contributions to Tribal Household Income from Forests and Agriculture
Nimmalapadu village is located in a relatively prosperous tribal area. Tribals of Nimmalapadu are settled agriculturists who grow paddy on wetlands. On dry land, they grow ragi, same, jowar, bajra, maize, dry paddy, niger, redgram, tobacco, ginger, turmeric, horsegram, and vegetables. Two other sources of income are fruit trees and NWFPs. Households are involved in seasonal collection of NWFPs like adda leaves, hill-brooms, tamarind, pongam seeds, gum, honey, myrobalans, medicinal plants and barks, thatching grass, cleaning nuts, and marking nuts. Their income is quite substantial and keeps them well above the poverty line.
A regression analysis was done to determine the factors that most impact the net income of a household.2 The regression analysis indicated that the number of hectares in wet land was an important determinant of net income (b = .4501, t = 3.125, p<.01). This is expected as wet land is critical for growing good paddy and for an extended growing season. The second most important factor affecting net income was the number of trees owned by a tribal household (b =.3305, t = 2.435, p<.05). The number of trees owned has a direct bearing on the net income of a tribal household. During the dry season, it is the products from the trees that ensure the economic survival of a tribal household. The regression results clearly showed the significance of trees in the economic viability of a tribal household. It is also important to note that the number of trees was more significant than the extent of dry hectarage or the number of acres cultivated under podu, i.e. shifting cultivation. The number of hectares in dry and podu land were not statistically significant factors in impacting net income.
2 A regression analysis using 40 households is justified on several grounds: a) we surveyed the entire population in the 2 hamlets of Nimmalapadu village; b) it is acceptable, as per convention, to conduct a regression analysis if a ratio of 10 cases per variable is maintained; in our analysis we never exceed four variables per analysis; c) finally, in our analysis, the it-Square and Adjusted it-Square are very similar indicating that our sample size is adequate for the type of analysis we conducted. For an extensive discussion, see Cohen, Jacob and Patricia Cohen. 1983. Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. London
In a separate regression analysis, an effort was made to disaggregate net income into income from dry land, wet land, podu land, and from NWFPs and trees owned. Income from wet land constituted the greatest proportion of net income and was statistically significant (b=.6863, t = 13.898, p<.01). The next largest component of net income was from NWFPs and trees owned (b =.5231, t = 11.300, p<.01). The regression results indicated it was a statistically significant contributor. Income from shifting cultivation (b = .4286, t = 8.131, p<.01), and income from dry land (b = .3733, t = 7.604, p<.01) ranked third and fourth respectively in their contributions to net income. The overall regression results once again emphasized the importance of forests and NWFPs for tribal households.
The results are also significant for another reason. A high rate of dependence on forests in a relatively well off tribal region, as the data show, points to an even greater dependence on forests in impoverished tribal areas. These results can therefore be generalized to other tribal villages in Vishakapatnam district. The results are also consistent with studies that showed income from NWFP, making up 50 percent of the income of 30 percent of the people in India (Lele et al., 1994; Ramamani, 1988). Qualitative and quantitative data show that women play a very vital role in the collection and processing of NWFPs. In some tribal villages, a staggering 70 percent of forest-related activities in a household are performed by women and girl children alone.
The overwhelming conclusion is that women not only bear a greater proportion of the burden in NWFP collection and processing, but their efforts are critical in contributing up to 50 percent of the household income. Women in tribal households often have a greater say because of their enormous contribution to the welfare of the household. Once the sale of the forest produce is made in the weekly market or at the forest cooperative, women generally purchase food and other basic necessities for the household. Any surplus cash is then given to the man in the house. As mentioned previously, women collect NWFPs for almost 9 months of the year. This steady extraction of forest products, either for subsistence or for income, further bolsters women's standing in the households. Village commons and forests, Agarwal (1994a, p. 63) noted, boost the status of women:
"In South Asia, village commons (VCs) and State forests acquire importance especially for two reasons: (a) the high overall dependence on them of rural households, and especially of the poor and tribal populations, for a wide variety of items essential for daily use, a dependence which becomes critical during drought and famine; (b) the fact that products from VCs and forests, which are primarily gathered by women and children, provide women with an independent source of subsistence unmediated by dependency relationships on men."
It is good forest policy to recognize the considerable subsistence and economic impact or women on tribal households and address the concerns of women in the protection and management of forests.
