CHAPTER 3d: ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PLANT FAMILIES
WITH INSECTICIDAL AND FUNGICIDAL PROPERTIES

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LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)

Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds.
syn. M. sylvestris L.

(Horse mint, English horsemint)

 

 

 

 

 

Mentha longifolia (L.) Huds. syn. M. sylvestris L. Uphof, 1968
Description Ascending erect, branched perennial herb, fine tomentose-pubescent, to approximately 50 cm high. Leaves elliptical-lanceolate, or subovate, serrate, acute, sessile or subsessile, rounded at base, 2-4 cm long, 0.8-2 cm wide. Flowers 2-3 mm long. Mandaville, 1990
Habitat Temperate Europe and North Africa, escaped into North America. Uphof, 1968
Uses Infusion of the herb is considered carminative and stimulant; it is a powerful antiseptic; used for headaches and pain in general. Uphof, 1968
Oil 10 g wheat treated with 2 ml of 2 percent solution in acetone caused 100 percent mortality in S. oryzae within 48 hours. Mathela, et al. 1989
Constituents Include menthol, menthone, piperitone, piperitenone, linalool, carvone and eucalyptol. Mathela, et al. 1989

LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)

Mentha piperita L.

(Peppermint)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mentha piperita L.

 Rehm and Espig, 1991

 

 

 

 

 

Description Hybrid between Mentha aquatica and M. spicata. A perennial herb spreading by subterranean and aerial stolons; stems 40-80 cm high, unbranched in lower part, branched above. Leaves variable, oblong to lanceolate, 4-8 cm long and 1.5-2.5 cm broad; green or reddish-green, margin deeply dentate. Flowers 8 cm long with reddish-pink corolla, arranged in groups in axils of bracts. Flück, 1976
Habitat Cultivated in the British Isles, France, Italy and the United States. Uphof, 1968
Uses Peppermint is used in the food and cosmetics industries, and pharmacy.

Antiseptic, carminative and antispasmodic properties, especially on the digestive tract.

Rehm and Espig, 1991


Flück, 1976

Oil Exposure of T. castaneum to 4 m l/litre, in a fumigation chamber for 48 hours caused 91 percent mortality in 1st instar larvae, 71 percent mortality in 2nd instar larvae and 60 percent mortality in adults. 7 m 1/litre caused 92 percent mortality in adults within 24 hours. Mishra and Kumar, 1983
Exposure to 6 µg/litre for 3 hours in a fumigation chamber caused 100 percent mortality in S. cerealella and 50 percent mortality in adult A. obtectus. Klingauf, et al. 1983
Exposure to 15 µ1/litre in a fumigation chamber for 3 hours caused >75 percent mortality in adult T. castaneum, R. dominica, O. surinamensis and S. oryzae. Shaaya, et al. 1991
Antifungal activity Five percent (w/v) of ground mint in rice powder and corn steep liquor medium prevented aflotoxin production of A. flavus after an incubation period of six days. Mabrouk and El-Shayeb, 1980
Constituents Include menthol, menthone and menthyl acetate.

Steam-volatile constituents include menthone (35 percent), menthol (18.8 percent) and isomenthone (12.8 percent).

All parts of the plant produce an essential oil containing 50 to 85 percent menthol, menthone, jasmone, alcohols, aldehydes, tannins and bitter compounds.

Singh, et al. 1989

Regnault-Rogers, et al. 1993

Schauenberg and Paris, 1977


LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)

Mentha spicata L.

(Spearmint)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Mentha spicata L. (Spearmint)

 Rehm and Espig, 1991

 

 

 

Description Perennial herb with subterranean runner; errect, square stems; leaves 3-5 cm long, opposite, lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate; margin deeply incised, rounded with pointed teeth; hairs few. Lilac flowers, small, arranged in whorls on a terminal cylindrical spike. Flück, 1976
Habitat Cultivated widely in Europe and the United States. Uphof, 1968
Uses Spearmint is used as an aromatizer in the food industry, for chewing gum and toothpaste.

Stimulates gastric secretion and is reported to also stimulate bile secretion.

Rehm and Espig, 1991


Flück, 1976

Leaf powder Ten percent (w/w) admixed with green gram prevented oviposition in adult C. analis and the production of F1 after an exposure period of 60 days.

Two percent (w/w) admixed with milled rice had little effect on the development of C. cephalonica after an exposure period of 60 days.

George and Patel, 1992


Prusty, et al. 1989

Constituents Volatile oil differs markedly from that of peppermint; contains carvone (also present in caraway) instead of menthol. Tannin also present. Flück, 1976

LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)

Ocimum basilicum L.

(Sweet basil, Garden basil)

 

 Ocimum basilicum L. Rehm and Espig, 1991
Description Strongly aromatic perennial plant forming a dense tuft 20-50 cm in height. Leaves pale green, lanceolate. Flowers white or pink in whorls in the axils of leaves, upper lobe of calyx rounded and spreading. Schauenberg and Paris, 1977; Grieve, 1974
Habitat India, Southeast Asia and Northeast Africa; Sennegal to Southern Nigeria. Uphof, 1968; Burkill, 1995
Uses This is used as a culinary herb and the distilled oil is used in perfumery, cordials (e.g. Chartreuse), cosmetics, and soaps; it is also used as a herbal medicine in the West Indies. Ayensu, 1981; Duke, 1985
Oil 15 m l/litre in a fumigation chamber caused 100 percent mortality in adult O. surinamensis, 80 percent mortality in R. dominica and approximately 45 percent mortality in S. oryzae within 24 hours. Shaaya, et al. 1991
One percent oil in acetone applied to filter paper showed class V repellent activity (98 percent) against T. castaneum eight weeks after application, when assessed by a five day repellency trial; the responses were lower over the first four weeks. Mohiuddin, et al. 1987
Constituents Contains eucalyptol, estragol, 1,8-cineol, eugenol, borneol, ocimene, geraniol, anethole, 10-cadinols, beta-carophyllene, alpha-terpinole, camphor, 3-octanone, methyl eugenol, safrol, sesquithujene, 1-epibicyclosequiphellandrine, linalool and methyl chavicol.

Oil also contains a -pinene and borneol; also thymol.

 

Steam-volatile constituents include linalool (50 percent), cineole-b -phell. (7.6 percent) and eugenol (6.4 percent).

 

Flowers contain tannin.

Duke, 1985




Jouhar and Poucher, 1991; Oliver-Bever, 1986

Regnault-Roger, et al. 1993

Schauenberg and Paris, 1977

Toxicity Leaf juice is reported to be slightly narcotic. The two carcinogens safrole and estragole (methyl chavicol) have been reported in some oils. Duke, 1985

LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)

Ocimum canum Sims.

(Hoary or American basil, Camphor basil)

 

 

 

 

 

Ocimum canum Sims.

 Oliver-Bever, 1986
Description Bushy, semi-woody herb to 40 cm high. Burkill, 1995
Habitat Widespread in tropical Africa and Old World tropics; introduced into the Americas. Anthropogenic in village environs and cultivated areas, not wild but occassionally subspontaneous. Burkill, 1995
Uses The leaves are used as a traditional medicine in West Africa for the treatment of fevers, dysentery and to relieve toothache. Leaves used as flavouring and as an insect repellent.

It is also used in Rwanda to protect against post-harvest insect damage.

Oliver-Bever, 1986




Weaver, et al. 1994

Dried milled leaves One percent (w/w) admixed with pinto beans caused 100 percent mortality in adult Z. subfasciatus after 48 hours. Weaver, et al. 1994
Extract from leaves The LC5 0 values for linalool applied to filter paper in a 24 hour exposure trial were 412 m g/cm2 for
A. obtectus, 427 m g/cm2 for S. oryzae, 429 m g/cm2 for Z. subfasciatus and 430 m g/cm2 for R. dominica. A dose of 750 m g/cm2 caused 100 percent mortality in all four species within 24 hours.		 Weaver, et al. 1991b
Constituents Linalool is the major component of the oil, forming 60-90 percent of the total volatiles collected. Weaver, et al. 1991a
Composition of the essential oil varies according to its origin. In East Africa it contains 16-25 percent camphor, while in Central Africa methyl cinnamate predominates; in West Africa it may contain 75 percent methylchavicol (estragol). Oliver-Bever, 1986
Mode of action Linalool is an oxygenated monoterpenoid which acts as a reversible competitive inhibitor of acetylcholinesterase Weaver, et al. 1991b

LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)

Ocimum kilimandscharicum Baker ex Gürke

 

 

Photograph unavailable

 

 

Jembere, et al. 1995
Description Aromatic, perennial woody shrub up to 2 m tall. Paton, 1992
Habitat

 

Upland areas of Eastern Africa (1200-1900 m); grassland and disturbed ground. Paton, 1992
Uses Traditonally used to for the treatment of serious colds and coughs, abdominal pains, measles and mild diarrhoea in children. It is also used as a grain protectant in East Africa. Kokwaro, 1976; Jembere, et al. 1995
Dried leaves and essential oil 100 percent mortality was observed in adults of S. zeamais, R. dominica and S. cerealella exposed for 48 hours to dried ground leaves and essential oil extract at doses of 25 g and 0.3 g per 250 g of grain respectively Jembere, et al. 1995
Constituents Major compound is camphor. Jembere, et al. 1995

 

LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)

Ocimum suave Willd.

(Wild basil)

 

 Ocimum suave Willd Hassanali, et al. 1990
Description A branched, erect shrub to 1 m in height. Burkill, 1995
Habitat Guinea to West Camaroons and generally across Africa to East Africa into tropical Asia. Widespread on open waste areas.

Common in the upland forest areas of East Africa.

Hassanali, et al. 1990

 

Burkill, 1995

Uses Used as a traditional medicine for the treatment of stomachache, cough and influenza. It is also used as a perfume, an insect repellent (particularly against mosquitoes) and a grain protectant. Hassanali, et al. 1990
Oil The oil showed repellent properties against
S. zeamais when assessed 1h after application in an olfactometer.		 Hassanali, et al. 1990
Constituents Include eugenol and mono- and sesquiterpenoids. Hassanali, et al. 1990

LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)

Origanum vulgare L.

(Oregano, Wild marjoram)

 

 Origanum vulgare L. Rehm and Espig, 1991
Description Aromatic perennial, 20-50 cm in height; reddish stem branched in upper part. Glandular hairs cover entire plant. Leaves opposite, variable in size, lower ones larger (up to 5 cm in length) becoming smaller towards apex; ovate to elliptical, margin entire or broadly crenate. Flowers 4-7 mm, pink to red, arranged in panicles on branches. Flück, 1976
Habitat Native to central Europe on calcareous and siliceous soils. Flück, 1976
Uses Use as a culinary herb and for medicinal purposes. Rehm and Espig, 1991; Flück, 1976
Oil 10 µ1/litre of air in a fumigation chamber caused 100 percent mortality in adult O. surinamensis; 15 µI/litre caused 75 percent mortality in R. dominica and 40 percent mortality in S. oryzae, within 24 hours. Shaaya and Pisarev, 1991
Antifungal activity 2.0 to 2.5 µ1/litre of air in a fumigation chamber inhibited mycelial growth and eradication of the spores of A. flavus, A. niger and A. ochraceus (fungal pests of stored products).

Sporulation and aflatoxin production was inhibited in three toxigenic strains of Aspergilli (A. flavus ATCC 15548, A. flavus NRRL 3251 and  A. parasiticus) cultured on ground oregano (1.5 g) and sterile water for 30 days.

Two percent (w/v) ground oregano in potato dextrose agar completely inhibited growth of seven mycotoxin-producing moulds for up to 21 days.

0.025 percent (w/v) essential oil (O. onites) completely inhibited growth of nine species of fungi in potato dextrose medium after an inoculation period of 30 days.

500 m l/ml of thymol completely inhibited the growth of A. parasiticus after an incubation period of ten days.

0.05 percent (w/v) of thymol completely inhibited growth of nine species of fungi in potato dextrose medium after an inoculation period of 30 days. The same concentration of carvacrol also inhibited growth of nine species of fungi under the same conditions.

Paster, et al. 1995

 


Llewellyn, et al. 1981

Azzouz and Bullerman, 1982


Akgül and Kivanç, 1988


Buchanan and Shepherd, 1981


Akgül and Kivanç, 1988

Constituents Include carvacrol, thymol, linalool, cedrol, cymene, pinene and origanene.

Steam-volatile constituents include: carvacrol (39.4 percent), thymol (26.6 percent), para p-cymene (16.3 percent) and linalool (8.5 percent).

Essential oil contains thymol, carvacol, origanene and tannin.

Jouhar and Poucher, 1991

Regnault-Rogers, et al. 1993


Schauenberg and Paris, 1977


LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)

Pogostemon heyneanus Bth.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pogostemon heyneanus Bth.

Perry, 1980
Uses Leaves, root, flowers and fruit are all utilized in traditional medicine in the Malay Peninsula, the Phillipines and Indo-China. Perry, 1980
Essential oil extract of leaves Contact toxicity of benzaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde and eugenol (isolated from leaves) was determined against S. oryzae, S. paniceum, T. castaneum and
B. chinensis.		 Deshpande, et al. 1974

LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)

Rosmarinus officinalis L.

(Rosemary)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rosmarinus officinalis L.

Rehm and Espig, 1991

 

 

 

Description Bushy and aromatic, woody shrub, 0.5-2 m high with scaly bark on older branches. Shoots hairy, bearing needle-shaped leaves 15-35 mm long, 1.5-3 mm broad, strongly revolute, upper surface green, lower surface dull grey. Flowers arranged in groups of 2-10 in leaf axils, approx. 1 cm long, pale blue. Flück, 1976
Habitat Grows on dry rock hills of the Mediterranean, often near the sea, but also inland. Wren, 1975
Uses Rosemary is a culinary herb used in Europe. Its essential oil is used in seasoning and as an aroma for soaps.

Antiseptic, diaphoretic and diuretic properties.

Used as an insecticide in Latin America; it is a fragrent moth repellent. Oil has bacterial and fungicidal properties.

Rehm and Espig, 1991

 

Flück, 1976

Duke, 1985

Oil 15 m l/litre of air caused 100 percent mortality in adult
R. dominica, O. surinamensis and S. oryzae within
24 hours.		 Shaaya and Pisarev, 1991
Constituents of oil

 

 

 

 

 

Include limonene, a -pinene, b -pinene, camphor, camphene, limonene, 1,8-cineole, linalool, terpinene-4-ol, bornyl acetate and borneol.

Steam-volatile constituents include: camphor (30.6 percent), borneol (22.1 percent) and cineole-b -Phell.(10.6 percent).

Include: a -thyjene and a -pinene (12.5 percent), camphene (4 percent), b -pinene (1.3 percent), d -3-carene and myrcene (1.3 percent), limonene (3 percent), 1,8-cineole (47 percent), p-cymene (1.8 percent), camphor and linalool (10.7 percent), terpinen-4-ol (1.3 percent), caryophyllene (4.9 percent), borneol, a -humulene and a -terpineol (4 percent), g -muurolene (3.1 percent), b -bisabolene and carvone (4 percent).

Lawrence and Reynolds, 1989


Regnault-Roger, et al. 1993


Duke, 1985

Toxicity In large doses it produces spasms and vertigo.

Toxic when taken in large quantities and can be fatal.

Bath preparations containing oil can cause erythema. Toiletries containing oil can cause dermatitis in hypersensitive individuals.

Flück, 1976

Schauenberg and Paris, 1977
Duke, 1985


LAMIACEAE (LABIATAE)

Salvia officinalis L.

(Sage, Sauge, Salvia)

Salvia officinalis L.

Rehm and Espig, 1991

 

 

Description Undershrub, 20-60 cm high, lower part woody, upper part of square stems covered with hairs. Leaves 3-10 cm long and 1.5-5 cm broad, opposite, ovate and elongated, greenish-grey with hairs. Flowers light blue to violet-blue, 2-3 cm long with short upper lip; arranged in axillary whorls of 4-8 flowers. Flück, 1976
Habitat Native of the Mediterranean; now widely cultivated. Wren, 1975
Uses Sage is a culinary herb also used for oil production and medicinally. Rehm and Espig, 1991; Flück, 1976
Oil 15 m l/litre of air in a fumigation chamber caused 100 percent mortality in adult R. dominica and S. oryzae, and >95 percent mortality in O. surinamenis within 24 hours. Shaaya, et al. 1991
Constituents Include a -pinene, limonene, linalool, camphor, terpineol, 1,8-cineole and p-cymene.

Steam-volatile constituents include linalyl acetate (21.4 percent), terpinene 1-OL-4 (24 percent), camphour (6.5 percent), cineole-b -Phell. (6.4 percent), a -humulene (5.2 percent) and t-caryophyllene (5 percent).

Lawrence and Reynolds, 1991

Regnault-Roger, et al. 1993

Toxicity Cheilitis and stomatitis follow some cases of sage tea ingestion. Duke, 1985

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