CHAPTER 3f: ALPHABETICAL LIST OF PLANT FAMILIES
WITH INSECTICIDAL AND FUNGICIDAL PROPERTIES
| MYRSINACEAE
Embelia ribes Burm. f.
|
 |
Perry, 1980 |
| Description | Straggling shrub, almost a climber; leaves ovate to lanceolate, smooth leaves. Flowers small, whitish-pink in racemes at end of branches. Small, globular fruits about the size of white pepper, reddish-brown with a small beak at the apex. The single seed is horny with a mildew-like appearance due to minute, crystalline powder, depressed at base. | Grieve, 1974; Wren, 1975 |
| Habitat | Ranges from India to Southern China and south to Indonesia; East Africa. | Perry, 1980; Grieve, 1974 |
| Uses | Utilised in traditional medicine in the Malay Peninsula, India and Indo-China. | Perry, 1980 |
| Petroleum ether extract of seeds | 0.5 percent (v/w) admixed with green gram prevented damage caused by C. chinensis for a period of 90 days. | Chander and Ahmed, 1982 |
| Constituents | Reported to contain: embelin (active principle), quercitol, fatty ingredients, an alkaloid christembine, a resinoid, tannins and a minute quantity of of volatile oil. | Perry, 1980 |
| MYRTACEAE
Eucalyptus spp. |
Photograph unavailable
|
|
| Description
|
Evergreen trees with opposite, leathery (coriaceous) leaves. There are two types of leaves, juvenile, which are covered with a white wax giving them a blueish appearance and mature which are usually longer and greyish-green in colour. The bark often sheds to reveal a smooth greyish-white trunk. | Boland, et al. 1991 |
| Habitat | Indigenous to Australasia but also common in the tropics and sub-tropics. | Uphof, 1968 |
| Uses | Eucalyptus trees are grown for timber and pulp; they are also used in medicine and perfumery. | Dakshinamurthy, 1988 |
| Commercial oil | 25 m
l oil in choice-chamber experiments showed significant repellency against
A. obtectus; it also showed direct ovicidal and larvicidal effects.
The vapour from 200 mg oil in 860 ml desiccators caused 100 percent mortality in adult C. chinensis within 24 hours. Exposure to oil vapour caused mortality in adult |
Stamopoulos, 1991
Ahmed and Eapen, 1986
|
| MYRTACEAE
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. (Lemon-scented gum)
|
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | Tall tree, wood light to dark brown, straight grained. | Uphof, 1968 |
| Habitat | Coastal areas of Australia, cultivated in South Africa, Java and Brazil. | Uphof, 1968 |
| Oil | Vapour from 0.044 ml of oil/litre of air in a fumigation chamber caused 50 percent mortality of C. chinensis eggs within six days. | Pajni and Gill, 1991 |
| Constituents | Volatile oil contains 60-80 percent of citronellal. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| MYRTACEAE
Eucalyptus globus Labill. (Tasmanian blue gum tree, Blue gum tree, Australian fever tree)
|
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | Wood is pale, strong and durable.
Leaves are tough, leathery, greyish green, scimitar-shaped, 10-15 cm long and about 2.5-4 cm wide; shotly stalked and rounded at base, with numerous transparent oil dots. |
Uphof, 1968
Potter, 1975 |
| Habitat | Australia, Tasmania and Mediterranean
region.
Mainly cultivated in Brazil, ex-USSR, Spain, Ecuador, Portugal and India. |
Potter, 1975
Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Leaf powder | The LD50 for exposure
to leaf powder for seven days was 4.1 g/100g rice and 4.86 g/100g rice
for adult S. oryzae and S. granarius respectively. The leaves showed repellent activity against both species. |
Sharaby, 1989 |
| Oil | 0.4 percent (v/w) admixed with red gram prevented emergence of F1 adults in C. chinensis after an exposure period of 90 days. | Srivastava, et al. 1988 |
| Constituents | The oil contains over 70 percent
cineole.
Major constituents are monoterpenoid esters (66.12 percent) i.e. 1,8-cineole (66.1 percent) and the monoterpenes (21.15 percent) i.e. a -pinene (14.7 percent). Steam-volatile constituents include cineole-b -Phell. (86 percent), a -pinene (3.8 percent) and para p-cymene (2.4 percent). |
Rehm and Espig, 1991
Boelens, 1984
|
| MYRTACEAE
Eucalyptus terreticomis |
Photograph unavailable
|
Dakshinamurthy, 1988 |
| Description | Medium to tall tree (10-25 m), trunk solitary, usually straight; crown elongated or spreading; bark deciduous in large flakes or sheets, white with grey or bluish patches. Juvenille leaves 6-21 cm x 5-10 cm, mature leaves 8-20 cm x 1-2.7 cm. Inflorescence 5-12 flowered, axillary umbels on peduncles 1.5-2.5 cm long. | Elliot and Jones, 1986 |
| Habitat | Australia. | Uphof, 1968 |
| Leaf powder | One percent (w/w) admixed with freshly harvested paddy, field-infested with S. cerealella, significantly reduced the number of emerging F1 adults during four months of storage. The treatment also prevented infestation by R. dominica over a storage period of four months. | Dakshinamurthy, 1988 |
| MYRISTICACEAE
Myristica fragrans Houtt. (Nutmeg, Mace)
|
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | Evergreen tree growing up to 12 m in height with aromatic leaves and clusters of small yellow flowers. | Chevallier, 1996 |
| Habitat | Native to the Molucca Islands of Indonesia; now widely cultivated in the tropics. | Chevallier, 1996 |
| Uses | This culinary spice is also
used in perfumes and as a medicinal plant in the West Indies.
Mace is the dried arillus, nutmeg is the endosperm, and the fresh fruit is used locally for preserves and pickles. |
Ayensu, 1981
|
| Acetone extracts of nutmeg
|
2 000 ppm of extract applied
to wheat reduced F1 emergence of S. oryzae when the adults were
introduced 14 weeks after treatment. Nutmeg extract was most effective,
reducing F1 emergence by approximately 66 percent; mace extract reduced
F1 emergence by approximately 50 percent.
Topical application of 1ml (10 percent w/v) extract did not adversely effect adult mortality of T. confusum three days after exposure. |
Su, 1989
|
| Constituents | Include eugenol, iso-eugenol,
terpineol, borneol, linalool, geraniol, safrole, myristicin, pinene, amphene,
terpenes and free acids.
Steam-volatile constituents include a -pinene (23.2 percent), sabinene (22.6 percent) and b -pinene (15.6 percent). |
Jouhar and Poucher, 1991
|
| Toxicity | Volatile oils from nutmeg and mace in overdose at 5 g (equivalent to one whole nutmeg) are toxic and potentially hallucinogenic. The LD50 in rats is less than 1 g/kg. | Oliver- Bever, 1986 |
| MYRTACEAE
Psidium guajava L. (Guava, Goyave, Guayaba, Guave)
|
|
Sharaby, 1989; Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Description | Small branching tree, reaching 9 m in height, four anguled branchlets; leaves light green in colour, elliptic and corrugated. | Graf, 1986 |
| Habitat | West Indies, Mexico to Peru. Cultivated in the tropics and sub-tropics. | Uphof, 1968 |
| Uses | The fruit is canned or made into jam. The leaves are used medicinally in India and West Indies for digestive disorders. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Leaves | The LD50 for leaf powder admixed with rice assessed for S. oryzae and S. granarius at seven days was 2.25 percent and 2.28 percent (w/w), respectively. Admixture of 15 percent w/w with rice prevented the production of F1 adults of both species. | Sharaby, 1989 |
| Constituents | Leaves contain an essential oil rich in cineol, tannins, four triterpenic acids, and ursolic and oleanolic acids; three flavonoids have been identified in the leaves: quercetin, 3-L-4-arabinofuranoside and 3-L-4-pyranoside. | Oliver-Bever, 1986 |
| MYRTACEAE
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. and Perry (Clove, Girofle, Árbol del clavo)
|
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | Evergreen tree growing up to 10 m; elliptic, glandular dotted, aromatic leaves; yellow, tubular flowers, 1 cm across. | Graf, 1986 |
| Habitat | Cultivated mostly in Tanzania, Indonesia, Madagascar, Brazil and Sri Lanka. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Uses | Clove is a culinary spice; also used to make "kretek" cigarettes in Indonesia. Clove oil distilled from leftovers, stems, young shoots and leaves. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Oil | 10.38 mg/cm2 applied to filter paper showed 70% repellency (Class IV) for T. castaneum four weeks after application declining to 37 percent (Class II) at eight weeks. This response was less than that observed for dimethyl phthalate, which was used as a standard in repellency test trials. | Sighamony, et al. 1984 |
| Powdered flower bud | Two percent (w/w) admixed with cowpeas prevented oviposition and emergence of C. maculatus after an exposure period of ten and 70 days respectively. | Javid and Poswal, 1995 |
| Flower bud extract | Contact toxicty tests using
a non-polar hexane extract (100 g/100 ml solution) caused 90 percent mortality
in S. zeamais but had no effect on T. castaneum.
Rice treated with a non-polar hexane extract caused mortalities of 13 percent and 44 percent in T. castaneum and 43 percent and 53 percent in S. zeamais after seven days and 21 days exposure periods respectively. |
Ho, et al. 1994
Ho, et al. 1994 |
| Antifungal activity | Growth was completely inhibited
in three toxigenic strains of Aspergilli (A. flavus ATCC 15548,
A. flavus NRRL 3251 and A. parasiticus) cultured on ground
clove (1.5 g) and sterile water for 30 days.
0.1 percent (w/v) in in rice powder and corn steep liquor medium completely inhibited mycelium growth and aflatoxin production of A. flavus after an incubation period of six days. Two percent (w/v) ground clove in potato dextrose agar completely inhibited growth of seven mycotoxin-producing moulds for up to 21 days. 200-250 ppm in potato dextrose extract medium inhibited the growth and toxin production of A. parasiticus after an inoculation period of ten days. Ground cloves in potato-dextrose agar inhibited the growth and toxin production of A. flavus, A. ochraceus and A. versicolor after an incubation period of ten days. 125 ppm of eugenol in potato dextrose extract medium inhibited the growth and toxin production of A. parasiticus after an inoculation period of ten days. 0.4 mg/ml of eugenol (extracted from powdered cloves) in potatoe-dextrose agar inhibited the growth and toxin production of A. flavus and A. versicolor after an incubation period of ten days. |
Llewellyn, et al. 1981
Hitokoto, et al. 1980 |
| Constituents | The oil contains eugenol, a sesquiterpene and caryophylline | Schauenberg and Paris, 1977 |
| PIPERACEAE
Piper cubeda L.f. (Java long pepper)
|
 |
Rehm and Espig , 1991 |
| Description | Evergreen shrub; fruit resembles black pepper in size and colour, always tapers below into the stalk. | Wren, 1975 |
| Habitat | Java, South Borneo and Sumatra. | Wren, 1975 |
| Uses | Oil is extracted from the unripe fruit and is used as flavouring and in traditional medicine. | Su, 1990 |
| Cubedin extract | 50m g/cm2 applied to wrapping paper in choice chamber tests did not reduce the amount of feeding damage by R. dominica and S. granarius in a seven day trial. | Nawrot, et al. 1987 |
| Fruit extract | Topical application of cubeda hexane extract at 50m g/insect caused 72 percent mortality in adult S. oryzae and 87 percent mortality in C. maculatus, when mortality was assessed at seven days. Extract admixed with wheat at 0.2 percent reduced F1 production of S. oryzae and C. maculatus by 71 percent and 42 percent respectively. Extract showed repellent properties in choice-chamber tests against both species. | Su, 1990 |
| PIPERACEAE
Piper guineense Schum. & Thonn. (West Africa black pepper. Ashanti pepper, Poivre du Kissi) |
 |
Rehm and Espig, 1991; Uphof, 1968 |
| Description | Vine. | Uphof, 1968 |
| Habitat | Cultivated in Southeast Asia (majority produced in India, Malaysia and Indonesia), Africa and Brazil. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Uses | Used as a culinary spice; also used in traditional medicine in Africa and China. | Oliver-Bever, 1986 |
| Powder | 0.4 g/5 g of powdered seed admixed
with maize resulted in 50 percent adult mortality of S. zeamais.
0.1g/20 g admixed with maize, cowpea or bambara inhibited oviposition caused 100 percent adult mortality in S. zeamais, C. maculatus and C. subinnotatus respectively after 60 days or less. 1.5 g/20 g admixed with cowpea seeds caused 96 percent mortality in adult C. maculatus when assessed at 48 hours, and significantly reduced F1 emergence. |
Mbata and Ekpendu, 1992
Ivbijaro and Agbaje, 1986
Lale, 1992
|
| Extraction with hexane | 2 ml/kg cowpea seed caused 100
percent mortality in adult C. maculatus within 24 hours and prevented
the emergence of F1 adults.
0.1 g/20 g admixed with either maize, cowpea or bambara resulted in
100 percent adult mortality of 1 000 mg/kg applied to cowpeas reduced F1 emergence by 74 percent in C. maculatus and by 97 percent in S. oryzae on wheat. |
Ivbijaro, 1990
Mbata and Ekpendu, 1992
|
| Extraction with acetone | 2.63 percent the oil-extract admixed with 5 g of maize resulted in 50 percent adult mortality of S. zeamais. | Lale, 1992 |
| Oil | 0.02 percent oil applied to cowpeas completely prevented oviposition by adult C. maculatus. | Olaifa and Erhun, 1988 |
| Seed viability | Surface treatment of cowpea seed with 1.5 g/20 g seed did not reduce seed germination. | Ivbijaro and Agbaje, 1986 |
| Constituents | Fruits contain the amides piperine, N-iso-butyloctadeca-trans-2-trans-4-dienamide, sylvatine, a ,b -dihydro-piperine and trichostachine. The essential oil from the berries is composed of the terpenes phellandrene, pinene and limonene. | Oliver-Bever, 1986 |
| PIPERACEAE
Piper nigrum L. (Black pepper)
|
|
Rehm and Espig, 1991
|
| Description | Woody vine; black pepper is the dried, unripe fruit, externally black and wrinkled, 0.5 cm diameter. | Wren, 1975 |
| Habitat | Cultivated in Southeast Asia (majority produced in India, Malaysia and Indonesia) and Brazil. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Uses | Pepper seed used as a seasoning. | Rehm and Espig, 1991 |
| Powder | 600 mg/kg ground powder applied to maize caused 100 percent mortality in adult S. zeamais within six days, declining to 78 percent after two months of storage. | Javier and Morallo-Rejesus, 1986 |
| 300 mg/kg ground powder applied
to mung bean caused 100 percent mortality in adult C. chinensis within
five days, six months after treatment. Two percent (w/w) admixed with cowpea significantly reduced oviposition and emergence of C. maculatus after an exposure period of ten and 70 days respectively. |
Morallo-Rejesus, et al.
1990
Javaid and Poswal, 1995 |
|
| Ethanol extract | A crude ethanol extract applied at 250 mg/kg caused 98 percent adult mortality within six days immediately after treatment, and 100 percent mortality within ten days, two months after treatment. | Javier and Morallo-Rejesus, 1986 |
| Acetone extract | 10.38 mg/cm2 applied to filter paper in choice-chamber tests showed Class V repellency (81 percent repellency) against T. castaneum when assessed over four weeks | Sighamony, et al. 1984 |
| Crude methanol and acetone extracts | Concentrations greater than 20 mg/ml induced 90 percent mortality in 1st instar larvae of S. cerealella for up to 90 days after application. | Boff and de Almeida, 1995 |
| Oil | 200 mg/kg admixed with wheat caused 100% mortality in adult S. oryzae and R. dominica within 24 hours when assessed 15 days after treatment. When assessed at 30 and 60 days after treatment mortality in S. oryzae was 100 percent and 20 percent respectively, whereas mortality in R. dominica was 80 percent and 24 percent respectively. | Sighamony, et al. 1986 |
| Oil extracted in hexane | 1 000 mg/kg applied to cowpeas reduced F1 emergence of C. maculatus by 96 percent and emergence of F1 adult S. oryzae on wheat by 97 percent. | Su, 1983 |
| Antifungal activity | Ten percent (w/v) of ground seeds in rice powder and corn steep liquor medium prevented aflotoxin production of A. flavus after an incubation period of six days. | Mabrouk and El-Shayeb, 1980 |
| Constituents | Include pipercide, dihydropipercide and guineensine. | Miyakado, et al. 1989 |
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