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Conclusions

As the recommendations of the Expert Meeting indicated, there is an agreement on the necessity of increasing compatibility of definitions used by different international processes and the use of employing existing definitions in new applications. An improved definitional framework would facilitate reporting at country level, as it would, in particular, enable more efficient data collection and reduce the cost of reporting to various instruments. The principal strategy to achieve this would be harmonization of related definitions, i.e. making them comparable, fully compatible and increasingly consistent with each other. Standardization of definitions, i.e. adoption of similar wordings to be used under several frameworks, is a relevant option only in a few cases where differences are minor and the objectives are clearly aligned, or in emerging new contexts.

Some of the current differences between existing definitions are attributable to fundamental differences in the objectives and purposes for which the definitions have been formulated, and they simply cannot be reconciled. A case in point are the differences between definitions applied under FRA and UNFCCC, e.g., regarding reforestation and possibly also the treatment of agroforestry. Still, even in these cases, it may be possible to partially harmonize the definitions, for instance in implementation of GPG or where an optional range is given for threshold values. In other words, individual definitions could be reformulated so that part of the data collection based on them could benefit other processes (decomposition approach).

It is remarkable that various definitions differ only marginally. Incompatible features have probably grown out of differences in the context, where the definitions have been formulated. Personal experiences or interests of the people involved in definition work is another possible reason. In such cases, the potential for increased harmonization should be carefully explored. This could often apply, even if differences are due to objectives. For instance, some of the special features found in the draft ITTO definitions are probably attributable to their principal objective, which is to provide guidelines for practical forest management rather than constitute a basis for reporting. On the other hand, both aspects are relevant in the ITTO context.

Any new international initiative to develop forest-related definitions is always a potential source of risk for confusion if the work is not aligned with the existing terms and definitions under different instruments. The added value of potential new definitions for core terms should be carefully assessed before adopting them. Some international processes have been too hermetic in the past which has probably been an additional reason for unnecessary differences. Negotiators working under international agreements should have as comprehensive information as possible on the implications of alternative definitions, including cost of data collection and reporting.

Considering efficiency it would be highly desirable that data collection at the global level be concentrated in as few institutions as possible serving various data uses and users. Strengthening of the FRA process is a recommended option in view of its effective role in the past. On the other hand, if FRA is to assume a central position in data collection, it is necessary that its procedures and especially the framework of definitions and various classifications are made as flexible as possible. While some of the requirements deriving from other international processes may be difficult to accommodate, and do not directly serve for the FRA objectives, compatibility should be established at least on a conceptual level. The existence of a common definitional framework would reduce the need to undertake costly adjustments in the future. With improved data collection systems (coverage, accuracy, speed, etc.), compatibility can be further increased.

The elements of the common framework were largely identified by the Expert Meeting. When defining the detailed provisions, the options presented in this discussion paper under each core term could be considered.

REFERENCES

Buchwald, E. A. Hierarchical Terminology for More or Less Natural Forests in Relation to Sustainable Management and Biodiversity Conservation. Manuscript for Forest Ecology and Management.

Dobbertin, M. K. & Prüller, R. 2002. Forest Terminology: Living Expert Knowledge. How to Get Society to Understand Forest Terminology. IUFRO Occasional Paper 14.

FAO. 1998. Terms and Definitions. Forest Resources Assessment Programme Working Paper 1. FRA 2000.

FAO. 2000a. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 - Main Report - FRA 2000, Forestry Paper 140.

FAO. 2000b. On Definitions of Forest and Forest Change. Forest Resources Assessment Programme Working Paper 33. FRA 2000.

FAO. 2001. Global Ecological Zoning for the Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 - Final Report. Forest Resources Assessment Programme Working Paper 56. FAO, Rome, Italy.

FAO 2002. Twenty-Sixth FAO Regional Conference for the Near East, Tehran, Islamic Republic of Iran, 9 - 13 March 2002, Tehran Process for Low Cover Forest Countries.

FAO. 2002. Global Forest Resources Assessments - Linking National and International Efforts Final Report - Kotka IV Expert Consultation.

IPCC. 1996. Revised 1996 Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories. Reference Manual (Volume 3).

ITTO. 1998. Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Management of Natural Tropical Forests. Policy Development Series 7.

ITTO. 2002. ITTO Guidelines for the Restoration, Management and Rehabilitation of Degraded and Secondary Tropical Forests Draft prepared on behalf of ITTO by an International Expert Panel held in Bern, Switzerland 18-22 February 2002.

Kohl, M. 2000. Reliability and Comparability of TBFRA-2000 Results. In: UN-ECE/FAO 2000: Forest Resources of Europe, CIS, North America, Australia, Japan and New Zealand. Main Report. Geneva Timber and Forest Study Papers, No, 17.

Lund, H. Gyde. 1999. Definition of Low Forest Cover (LFC). Report prepared for IUFRO. Manassas, VA. 22 p.

Lund, H. Gyde. 2002. Coming to Terms with Politicians and Definitions.

Proceedings of FAO/WMO/IPCC/UNEP/CIFOR/IUFRO Expert Meeting on Harmonizing Forest-related Definitions for Use by Various Stakeholders, Rome, 22-25 January 2002.

Puustjärvi, E. & Simula M. 2002. Forest-related Definitions - Issues and Development Needs. Discussion Paper prepared for FAO/WMO/IPCC/UNEP/ CIFOR/IUFRO Expert Meeting on Harmonizing Forest-related Definitions for Use by Various Stakeholders Rome, 22-25 January 2002.

Rakonczay, Z. 2002. Biome-specific Forest Definitions. Technical Paper. Report to the UNFCCC Secretariat.

UNFCCC. 2000a. Methodological Issues, Land-Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry, Submissions from Parties, Addendum, Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, Thirteenth Session. Lyon, 11-15 September 2000.

UNFCCC. 2000b. Methodological Issues, Land-Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry, Submissions from Parties, Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice, Thirteenth Session. Lyon, 11-15 September 2000.

UNFCCC. 2001. Report Of The Conference Of The Parties On Its Seventh Session, Held At Marrakesh From 29 October To 10 November 2001, Addendum Part Two: Action Taken By The Conference Of The Parties, Volume I

UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA. 2001. Main Theme: Forest Biological Diversity. Report of the Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Forest Biological Diversity. Subsidiary Body for Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice, Seventh Meeting, Montreal, 12-16 November 2001. (NB! definitions taken on 17 September 2002 from http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/areas/forest/definitions.asp)

UNFCCC/SBSSTA. 2002. Report of the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice on Its Sixteenth Session. Held at Bonn, from 5 to 14 June 2002.

World Rainforest Movement. 2002. South Africa: FAO Forest Definition A Threat to Biodiversity. WRM Bulletin. Issue 56, March 2002.

Personal communication

Holmgren, P. Senior Forestry Officer, Forest Resources Assessment Programme, Forest Resources Division, FAO.

ANNEX 1

EXPLORATION OF DEFINITIONS FOR SELECTED COMPLEMENTARY TERMS

1. Primary and Old-growth Forests

There is a wealth of definitions for primary forest, old-growth forest, virgin forest- etc. (Lund 2002). Of the four processes analyzed in this study, the CBD and FRA have developed related definitions.

Box A. Definitions of Naturalness

UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA 2001

Primary forest. A primary forest is a forest that has never been logged and has developed following natural disturbances and under natural processes, regardless of its age. It is referred to "direct human disturbance" as the intentional clearing of forest by any means (including fire) to manage or alter them for human use. Also included as primary, are forests that are used inconsequentially by indigenous and local communities living traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. In much of Europe, primary forest has a different connotation and refers to an area of forest land which has probably been continuously wooded at least throughout historical times (e.g., the last thousand years). It has not been completely cleared or converted to another land use for any period of time. However traditional human disturbances such as patch felling for shifting cultivation, coppicing, burning and also, more recently, selective/partial logging may have occurred, as well as natural disturbances. The present cover is normally relatively close to the natural composition and has arisen (predominantly) through natural regeneration, but planted stands can also be found. However, the suggested definition above would include other forests, such as secondary forests.

Old growth forest stands are stands in primary or secondary forests that have developed the structures and species normally associated with old primary forest of that type have sufficiently accumulated to act as a forest ecosystem distinct from any younger age class.

FAO 1998 (FRA Working Paper No. 1)

Natural forest undisturbed by man. Forest which shows natural forest dynamics such as natural species composition, occurrence of dead wood, natural age structure and natural regeneration processes, the area of which is large enough to maintain its natural characteristics and where there has been no known human intervention or where the last significant human intervention was long enough ago to have allowed the natural species composition and processes to have become re-established.

The CBD definitions of primary and old growth forest differ in two respects. First, primary forest can be of any age, as long as it has developed following natural processes, whereas old growth forests has to be - by definition - old. Second, primary forests must not have been directly disturbed by humans, apart from inconsequential traditional use. Old-growth forest may have been subject to human disturbance, but it has always developed a structure and species composition that are normally associated with old primary forests. This overlaps with the definition of primary forests. Forests without any past human disturbance also qualify under the definition of old growth forest as long as they are `old' (Table A.)

Table A. Applicability of CBD Definitions (2001) of Primary and Old-growth Forest to Various Types of Forest Not Affected by Human Intervention

The FRA definition of natural forests undisturbed by man also emphasizes characteristics of forest that have developed based on natural processes. However, in contrast to the CBD terminology, the FRA definition covers all the four types of forests not affected by human intervention. The FRA definition also makes an explicit reference natural forests, thus excluding plantation forests.

The current situation is confusing because of overlapping terms. Improved clarity would require, e.g., that the four different types of forests not affected by human intervention are clearly distinguished as separate classes (Table B). The following working definitions and characterizations could be applied:

(i) old primary forest: old forests with no or inconsequential human disturbance

(ii) young primary forest: young forests with no or inconsequential human disturbance

(iii) old recovered primary forest: old forests which have regained natural-like status after human disturbance

(iv) young recovered primary forest: young forests which have regained natural like status after human disturbance

Table B. Key Characteristics of Proposed Definitions Denoting Forests not Affected by Human Intervention

Human influence/ age class

No or inconsequential human disturbance

Recovered to `natural state' after significant human disturbance

`Old'

Old primary forest

Old recovered primary forest

`Young'

Young primary forest

Young recovered primary forest

2. Definitions Related to Degraded Forests

Definitions related to degraded forests have been developed by FRA, CBD and ITTO. In addition, the latter organization has proposed a comprehensive framework of related concepts, including secondary forests, aimed at facilitating rehabilitation and restoration of degraded forest areas (ITTO 2002).

Box B. Definitions of Degraded and Secondary Forests

ITTO, 2002

Degraded primary forest. The initial forest cover of a primary, old-growth or managed forest has been affected by unsustainable, excessive timber and wood exploitation or by such intensity of extraction of non-wood forest products, that its structure, processes, functions and dynamics are altered beyond the elastic capacity of the forest ecosystems.

Secondary forest. Woody vegetation re-growing on land that was totally (or at least 90%) cleared of its original forest vegetation.

FAO, 1998 (FRA Working Paper No. 1)

Natural forest disturbed by man. Includes (i) logged over forests associated with various intensity of logging (ii) various forms of secondary forests, resulting from logging or abandoned cultivation.

UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA, 2001

Secondary forest. A secondary forest is a forest that has been logged and has recovered naturally or artificially. Not all secondary forests provide the same value to sustaining biological diversity, or goods and services, as did primary forest in the same location. In Europe, secondary forest is forest land where there has been a period of complete clearance by humans with or without a period of conversion to another land use. Forest cover has regenerated naturally or artificially through planting.

The ITTO definitions distinguish between degraded primary forests and secondary forests, while the FRA definition combines them under one definition. The CBD provides only one definition for secondary forest.

 


Figure A. Components of Natural Forest Disturbed by Man



The main difference between the two definitions of secondary forest is that the ITTO definition sets a fixed limit for forest clearance. If this limit is exceeded the subsequent regrowth is termed secondary forest. Since the difference is minor, harmonization or even formulation of a generic definitions could be considered.

Harmonization of the FRA definition with the others could be approached by splitting the FRA definition into two classes along the lines suggested by the ITTO definitions.

3. Degraded Forest Land

Another definition relevant to unstocked forest areas is the term degraded forest land put forward in the ITTO Guidelines for the Restoration, Management and Rehabilitation of Degraded and Secondary Tropical Forests (ITTO 2002) (Box C)19. It refers to unstocked forest areas which are so severely damaged by unsustainable use or natural causes that forest regrowth is either inhibited or substantially delayed.

Box C. ITTO Definition of Degraded Forest Land

ITTO 2002

Degraded forest land. Former forest land severely damaged by excessive timber and NWFP harvesting, poor management, repeated fire, grazing or other disturbances and land uses that damaged soil and vegetation to a degree which inhibited or severely delayed forest regrowth after abandonment.

The wording suggests that forest cover is absent and that the area may remain unstocked indefinitely. Despite the reference to `forest land', the definition implies that other land uses such as grazing, and possibly agriculture may be present in the area. On the other hand, `after abandonment' at the end of the definition would suggest that there is no economic use present in degraded forest land. These differences make it fundamentally different from the FRA definition of forest, which requires that other predominant land uses are not present and that restoration of forest cover takes place within a established timeframe (Figure B). In FRA terms, `degraded forest land' would probably be classified as `other wooded land' or `other land' if the land use has not been changed.

Figure B. Relationship between Current FRA Land Classes and ITTO Definition of Degraded Forest Land

One conceivable avenue to harmonization is to assign this type of land to a new sub-class under FRA e.g. under `degraded former forest land'. It would be extracted from existing FRA classes of non-forest land, i.e. `other wooded land', and `other land' (for definitions see Ch. 4.5). In technical terms, this may be feasible, since the new class could be distinguished based on a comparison of historical and current data on the extent of forest cover. Some additional ground truthing might also be necessary to clarify the current land use.

On the other hand, it is doubtful whether such adjustments are necessary, and whether the expected benefit would justify the related cost. The purposes for which the FRA and ITTO definitions have been formulated are quite different and links between them are few. The FRA definition applies to a global process focusing on national-level data collection to serve international reporting and comparisons, while the ITTO guidelines are aimed at providing guidance to practical management decisions, rather than offering a basis for reporting. Achieving compatibility between the two may therefore, in this particular case, be beneficial, but the benefits should be weighed against the respective development effort. On the other hand, national-level policy design and planning would require adequate data on degraded forest lands which cover vast areas in many countries.

4. Forest Improvement

In the FRA terminology, forest improvement is the reverse of forest degradation. However, the Expert Meeting discussed whether other terms such as aggradation, melioration, amelioration, initiation of sustainable management, etc. could be considered. Related terminology has been developed by ITTO (2002).

Box D. Definitions of Forest Improvement

FAO 2000a (FRA 2000 Main Report)

Forest improvement. Changes within the forest which positively affect the structure or function of the stand or site, and thereby increase the capacity to supply products and/or services.

ITTO 2002

(Forest) Rehabilitation. A management strategy applied in degraded forest lands that aims at re-establishing site productivity and protective functions and many of the ecological services provided by a functional forest or woodland ecosystem.

(Forest) Restoration. A management strategy applied in degraded primary forest areas. Forest restoration aims to enhance and accelerate natural processes of forest regeneration in order to regain the elastic capacity of the forest ecosystem.

The FRA definition refers to changes in the capacity of the forest to supply products and/or services. The optional approaches to capture it are discussed in relation to forest degradation (see Ch. 4.5).

The concepts of forest rehabilitation and forest restoration were developed by ITTO (2002) as a complement to their definitions of degraded forest land and degraded primary forest areas. However, as discussed above (cf. Section 3), the term `degraded forest land' is not compatible with other international definition frameworks such as the FRA and UNFCCC, and it is doubtful, whether harmonization should be attempted.

Forest restoration applies distinctly only to degraded primary forest areas, and it is therefore a much more restricted term than FRA's forest improvement, which applies to all forests. Further, forest restoration sets a specific target, regaining the elastic capacity of the forest ecosystem, whereas FRA's forest improvement is based on a continuum of positive changes in forest condition. One possible approach to harmonization is to incorporate forest restoration in the FRA scheme by referring to it as one of the means of forest improvement.

A parallel concept to forest improvement is stand improvement, which refers to forest improvement targeted at wood production at the stand level. Development and introduction of accepted forestry terminology of stand improvement could be considered as the activity is part of practical forest management.

5. Forest Fragmentation

Forest fragmentation is a special, and commonly encountered case of forest degradation. However, finding an agreement on a common definition has proved difficult. The only international process proposing a definition of forest fragmentation is CBD.

Box E. Definition of Forest Fragmentation

UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA 2001

Forest fragmentation. Forest fragmentation refers to any process that results in the conversion of formerly continuous forest into patches of forest separated by non-forested lands.

According to the CBD definition, fragmentation occurs only if forest patches are separated by non-forested lands. Forest can be divided into smaller blocks due to a variety of reasons, either by roads, clearing for agriculture, urbanization, or other human development. The CBD definition applies to a case where forest is fragmented by agricultural or urban development, but an other common case of fragmentation is a forested landscape composed of a mosaic of mature and regenerating stands that results from forest management for wood production. Incorporation of this feature in the definition could be considered.

The definition also lacks guidance regarding scale. The purpose is to study habitats for different species at different scales, and this varies from species to species. One option would be to refer to multiple scales.

Regarding harmonization, one possible approach is to include fragmentation as one indicator in a composite index measuring the level of degradation. On the other hand, the cost factor may be significant, since there are no agreed and established methods of measuring fragmentation as yet. A variety of indicators have been used in the past to assess fragmentation, such as changes over time in edge to interior ratio, parcel size, proximity to development, percentage of forest cover, etc. However, for any one of the indicators, the apparent degree of fragmentation is highly dependent upon the definition of forest, the scale at which forests are mapped, and the scale at which fragmentation is measured.

6. Directly and Indirectly Human-induced Changes

The terms directly and indirectly human induced changes were introduced in the Kyoto Protocol. The basic approach in the Kyoto Protocol is that only changes that are directly human induced will enter carbon accounting. Of the seven change process defined by FAO, only afforestation and reforestation are entirely `directly human-induced'. The rest may be triggered either by humans or by natural causes20 (Table C).

However, the terms have not been defined in more detailed manner, and in some instances there are difficulties to determine, how to distinguish (i) human induced changes from natural changes, and (ii) directly human induced changes from indirectly induced changes.

Table C. Human Activities as Triggering Factor of Forest Change

Change Process

`Human-inducedness'

Remarks

Deforestation

Often

Large-scale natural damage such as fire in extreme climatic conditions may sometimes cause long-term loss of forest cover

Afforestation

Always

By definition a `human-induced' activity

Natural expansion of forests

Seldom

May, however, be `human-induced', if e.g. a land area is deliberately left undeveloped in order to allow natural expansion of forest

Reforestation

Always

By definition a `human-induced' activity

Natural regeneration

Sometimes

Natural regeneration after final felling may be assisted by human intervention

Degradation

Often

Large-scale natural damage may cause degradation

Improvement

Always

Management interventions typically influence natural development in order to accelerate forest growth, water catchment or other functions

Source: Puustjärvi & Simula 2002

In a few cases, the distinction may be clear and the triggering factor can be easily singled out. For instance, direct human-induced deforestation and permanent forest loss due to other causes (e.g. due to large-scale fire or extreme climatic conditions) can probably be distinguished with reasonable accuracy. The Marrakesh Accords cites changes that result from carbon dioxide fertilization and nitrogen deposition as examples of indirectly human-induced effects. The link is known to exist, even though the impact should probably be estimated based on theoretical models.

However, a number of other less clear cases can be identified. For instance, an immediate cause of storm damage is natural, but the underlying reason may be excessive thinning, which increased the stand's exposure to effects of strong wind, or no thinnings, which resulted in excessive h/dbh ratios and instability of individual trees. Damage caused by landslides may be traced back to removal of forest cover in higher altitudes.

It is possible that the concept will be subject to abuse. It may create a perverse incentive to gain credit for positive changes that happen naturally, and to avoid discredit for negative developments by claiming that they are natural changes, even though the triggering event may have been human action. For instance, it is unclear what level of assistance of natural regeneration is required to be considered reforestation. In favorable conditions, no assistance may be necessary, but a nominal effort may be made to ensure gain of credit. A conceptually more complex case arises when assistance to natural regeneration may not be motivated by a need to ensure the establishment of a tree stand, but by a wish to ensure a particular species composition. This would usually be termed reforestation, even though the outcome in terms of carbon sequestration is not necessarily any different from that achieved by unassisted natural regeneration.

It would be theoretically correct to distinguish between effects that are directly or indirectly human-induced, or attributable to natural causes, but it may be difficult to carry out in practice. One conceivable approach is to limit the focus of such efforts by identifying effects that can be expected to be significant and/or that can be measured with a reasonable effort. They would constitute priority areas for development of definitions and practical methods of monitoring.

ANNEX 2

DEFINITIONS OF FOREST AND RELATED LAND USE CLASSIFICATIONS AND FOREST CHANGE PROCESSES

Applied by the FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment (FRA) as at the end of the FRA 2000 project (FAO 2000a)

Forest. Forest includes natural forests and forest plantations. It is used to refer to land with a tree canopy cover of more than 10 percent and area of more than 0.5 ha. Forests are determined both by the presence of trees and the absence of other predominant land uses. The trees should be able to reach a minimum height of 5 m. Young stands that have not yet but are expected to reach a crown density of 10 percent and tree height of 5 m are included under forest, as are temporarily unstocked areas. The term includes forests used for purposes of production, protection, multiple-use or conservation (i.e. forest in national parks, nature reserves and other protected areas), as well as forest stands on agricultural lands (e.g. windbreaks and shelterbelts of trees with a width of more than 20 m), and rubberwood plantations and cork oak stands. The term specifically excludes stands of trees established primarily for agricultural production, for example fruit tree plantations. It also excludes trees planted in agroforestry systems.

Natural forest. A forest composed of indigenous trees and not classified as forest plantation.

Forest plantation. A forest established by planting or/and seeding in the process of afforestation or reforestation. It consists of introduced species or, in some cases, indigenous species.

Other wooded land. Land that has either a crown cover (or equivalent stocking level) of 5 to10 percent of trees able to reach a height of 5 m at maturity; or a crown cover (or equivalent stocking level) of more than 10 percent of trees not able to reach a height of 5 m at maturity; or with shrub or bush cover of more than 10 percent.

Afforestation. Establishment of forest plantations on land that, until then, was not classified as forest. Implies a transformation from non-forest to forest.

Natural expansion of forest. Expansion of forests through natural succession on land that, until then, was under another land use (e.g. forest succession on land previously used for agriculture). Implies a transformation from non-forest to forest.

Reforestation. Establishment of forest plantations on temporarily unstocked lands that are considered as forest.

Natural regeneration on forest lands. Natural succession of forest on temporarily unstocked lands that are considered as forest.

Deforestation. The conversion of forest to another land use or the long-term reduction of the tree canopy cover below the minimum 10 percent threshold (see definition of forest and the following explanatory note).

1. Explanatory note: Deforestation implies the long-term or permanent loss of forest cover and implies transformation into another land use. Such a loss can only be caused and maintained by a continued human-induced or natural perturbation. Deforestation includes areas of forest converted to agriculture, pasture, water reservoirs and urban areas. The term specifically excludes areas where the trees have been removed as a result of harvesting or logging, and where the forest is expected to regenerate naturally or with the aid of silvicultural measures. Unless logging is followed by the clearing of the remaining logged-over forest for the introduction of alternative land uses, or the maintenance of the clearings through continued disturbance, forests commonly regenerate, although often to a different, secondary condition. In areas of shifting agriculture, forest, forest fallow and agricultural lands appear in a dynamic pattern where deforestation and the return of forest occur frequently in small patches. To simplify reporting of such areas, the net change over a larger area is typically used. Deforestation also includes areas where, for example, the impact of disturbance, overutilization or changing environmental conditions affects the forest to an extent that it cannot sustain a tree cover above the 10 percent threshold.

2. Forest degradation. Changes within the forest which negatively affect the structure or function of the stand or site, and thereby lower the capacity to supply products and/or services.

3. Forest improvement. Changes within the forest which positively affect the structure or function of the stand or site, and thereby increase the capacity to supply products and/or services.

ANNEX 3

FOREST BIODIVERSITY DEFINITIONS UNDER THE CBD PROCESS

Indicative definitions taken from the Report of the ad hoc Technical Expert Group on Forest Biological Diversity (versions available on 17 September 2002 at http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/areas/forest/definitions.asp)

Terms

Definitions

Forest

The group considers the FAO definition of a forest as the basic one (FAO, 1998; FRA 2000), but acknowledge that many other useful definitions of "forest" exist in published form. The fact that "forest" has been defined in many ways is a reflection of the diversity of forests and forest ecosystems in the world and of the diversity of human approaches to forests.In this document, a forest is a land area of more than 0.5 ha, with a tree canopy cover of more than 10%, which is not primarily under agricultural or other specific non-forest land use.In the case of young forests or regions where tree growth is climatically suppressed, the trees should be capable of reaching a height of 5 m in situ, and of meeting the canopy cover requirement.

Forest biome

This reflects the ecological and physiognomic characteristics of the vegetation and broadly corresponds to climatic regions of the Earth. In this document, it is used in reference to boreal, temperate and tropical forest biomes.

Forest type

Within biomes, a forest type is a group of forest ecosystems of generally similar composition that can be readily differentiated from other such groups by their tree and undercanopy species composition, productivity and/or crown closure.

Forest ecosystem

A forest ecosystem can be defined at a range of scales.It is a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their abiotic environment interacting as a functional unit, where trees are a key component of the system. Humans, with their cultural, economic and environmental needs are an integral part of many forest ecosystems.

Forest biological diversity

Forest biological diversity means the variability among forest living organisms and the ecological processes of which they are part; this includes diversity in forests within species, between species and of ecosystems and landscapes.

Primary forest

A primary forest is a forest that has never been logged and has developed following natural disturbances and under natural processes, regardless of its age.It is referred to "direct human disturbance" as the intentional clearing of forest by any means (including fire) to manage or alter them for human use. Also included as primary, are forests that are used inconsequentially by indigenous and local communities living traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. In much of Europe, primary forest has a different connotation and refers to an area of forest land which has probably been continuously wooded at least throughout historical times (e.g., the last thousand years). It has not been completely cleared or converted to another land use for any period of time. However traditional human disturbances such as patch felling for shifting cultivation, coppicing, burning and also, more recently, selective/partial logging may have occurred, as well as natural disturbances. The present cover is normally relatively close to the natural composition and has arisen (predominantly) through natural regeneration, but planted stands can also be found.However, the suggested definition above would include other forests, such as secondary forests.

Secondary forest

A secondary forest is a forest that has been logged and has recovered naturally or artificially.Not all secondary forests provide the same value to sustaining biological diversity, or goods and services, as did primary forest in the same location.In Europe, secondary forest is forest land where there has been a period of complete clearance by humans with or without a period of conversion to another land use. Forest cover has regenerated naturally or artificially through planting.

Old growth forest

Old growth forest stands are stands in primary or secondary forests that have developed the structures and species normally associated with old primary forest of that type have sufficiently accumulated to act as a forest ecosystem distinct from any younger age class.

Plantation forest

A plantation forest may be afforested land or a secondary forest established by planting or direct seeding.A gradient exists among plantation forests from even-aged, single species monocultures of exotic species with a fibre production objective to mixed species, native to the site with both fibre and biodiversity objectives. This gradient will probably also reflect the capability of the plantation forest to maintain "normal" local biological diversity.

Degraded forest

A degraded forest is a secondary forest that has lost, through human activities, the structure, function, species composition or productivity normally associated with a natural forest type expected on that site. Hence, a degraded forest delivers a reduced supply of goods and services from the given site and maintains only limited biological diversity. Biological diversity of degraded forests includes many non-tree components, which may dominate in the undercanopy vegetation.

Agro-forest

An agro-forest is a complex of treed areas within an area that is broadly characterised as agricultural or as an agro-ecosystem.

Reforestation

Reforestation is the re-growth of forests after a temporary (<10 years.) condition with less than 10% canopy cover due to human-induced or natural perturbations (FAO, FRA 2000).

Afforestation

Afforestation is the conversion from other land uses into forest, or the increase of canopy cover to the 10% defined threshold for forest (FAO, FRA 2000).

Forest fragmentation

Forest fragmentation refers to any process that results in the conversion of formerly continuous forest into patches of forest separated by non-forested lands.

Habitat loss

Habitat loss, used with reference to an individual species, is the permanent conversion of former (forest) habitat to an area where that species can no longer exist, be it still forested or not.

Forest species

A forest species is a species that forms part of a forest ecosystems or is dependent on a forest for part or all of its day-to-day living requirements or for its reproductive requirements. Therefore, an animal species may be considered a forest species even if it does not live most of its life in a forest.

Native species

A native species is one which naturally exists at a given location or in a particular ecosystem, i.e. it has not been moved there by humans.

Endemic species

An endemic species is a native species restricted to a particular geographic region owing to factors such as isolation or in response to soil or climatic conditions.

Alien species

An alien species is a species, sub-species or member of a lower taxon that has been introduced outside its normal past and present distribution; the definition includes the gametes, seeds, eggs, propagules or any other part of such species that might survive and subsequently reproduce (GISP, 2001).

Invasive alien species

An invasive alien species is an alien species which becomes established in natural or semi-natural ecosystems or habitats. It is an agent of change and threatens native biological diversity (IUCN, 2000).

ANNEX 4

ITTO'S FOREST-RELATED DEFINITIONS

as presented in Appendix 9 of ITTO (Draft) Guidelines For The Restoration, Management And Rehabilitation of Degraded and Secondary Tropical Forests
(ITTO 2002)

Adaptive management

Process by which people adjust their management strategies to better cope with change, while also maintaining the integrity of their forest management objectives (Wollenberg et al. 1999)

Afforestation

Planted forest on deforested land, or on non-forested land.

Agro forest

A complex of tree areas within an area that is broadly characterized as agricultural or as an agro-ecosystem.

Alien species

A species or a sub-species or lower taxon introduced outside of its normal past and present distribution.

Carbon offset

The result of any action specifically undertaken to prevent the release of, and/or to remove from, carbon dioxide into the atmosphere in order to balance emissions taking place elsewhere.

Biodiversity21

A word made up from two words: biological diversity. The variability among living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

Biological diversity

The variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (CBD 1992)

Canopy

Simplified, four canopy layers can be distinguished: A-layer containing emergent canopy species, B-layer intermediate canopy species, C-layer containing subcanopy species, and D-layer that comprises the tree regeneration.

Collaborative (forest) management

A working relationship between different stakeholder to manage forest and tree resources.

Degraded forest landscapes

Forest conditions other than those found in primary or managed natural and planted forests. `Landscape' is defined in this context as a cluster of interacting ecosystem types of forest and other woodland vegetation.

Degraded forest land

Former forest land severely damaged by excessive timber and NWFP harvesting, poor management, repeated fire, grazing or other disturbances and land uses that damaged soil and vegetation to a degree which inhibited or severely delayed forest regrowth after abandonment.

Degraded primary forest

The initial forest cover of a primary, old-growth or managed forest has been affected by unsustainable, excessive timber and wood exploitation or by such intensity of extraction of non-wood forest products, that its structure, processes, functions and dynamics are altered beyond the elastic capacity of the forest ecosystems.

Elastic capacity of the forest ecosystem

Dynamic forest processes within a range of changing vertical forest structure, species composition and biodiversity, and productivity normally associated with the natural forest type expected at that site.

Endemic species

A species native to, and restricted to, a particular geographical region.

Enrichment

The practice of planting trees or favor natural regeneration within a natural forest, mainly for commercial purposes.

Forest degradation

Long-term reduction of the overall potential supply of benefits from the forest, which include wood, biodiversity and any other product or service.

Forest fallow

The intermediate time between two periods of shifting agriculture. In a functional shifting agricultural system, the fallow period is long enough so that a functional secondary forest stand can develop (>20 years).

Forest fragmentation

Refers to any process that results in the conversion of formerly continuous forest into patches of forest separated by non-forested lands (UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA 2201).

High forest

Generic term used to describe a forest situation close to "climax": primary forest, pristine forest, old-growth forest and managed natural forest under a strict selection system.

Key species

A plant, animal or microbial species which binds together an interactive feedback loop in the trophic and functional networks on an ecosystem22.

Landscape 

A cluster of interacting ecosystem types that occur in a given area.

Managed natural forest

Forest in which sustainable timber and non-wood harvesting (e.g. through integrated harvesting and silvicultural treatments), wildlife management and other uses have resulted in changes of forest structure and species composition. All major goods and service functions are maintained intact.

Modified natural forest

Primary forests managed or exploited for timber, wood and/or non-wood forest products, for wildlife or other purposes. The more intensive the use, the more the structure and composition is altered from that of the primary forests. Two major categories can be distinguished: managed natural forest and degraded forest landscapes.

Native species

A species that occurs naturally in a region.

Natural regeneration23

Renewal of trees by self-sown seeds or vegetative means.

Non-wood forest products (NWFP)

All forest products except timber and wood other than timber, including products from trees, plants and animals in the forest area.

Nurse species

Nurse species are robust tree and shrub species adapted to colonize site degraded forest areas. They rapidly cover soils, shade out weeds and attract seed-dispersing animals. They are generally strongly light-demanding (pioneer species).

Nutrient cycle

A natural process in which nutrients, mainly minerals, are taken up from the soil and used for plant growth, and then, once the plant dies, are returned to the soil through decomposition processes.

Old-growth forest

Is a primary or a secondary forest which has achieved an age at which structures and species normally associated with old primary forests of that type have sufficiently accumulated to act as a forest ecosystem distinct from any younger age class (UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA 2001).

Participatory forest management

Attempts to secure and improve the livelihoods of local people dependent on forest resources (Hobley 1996), by involving all key stakeholders in the process of forest management, understanding their needs and situations, allowing them to influence decisions and receive benefits, and increasing transparency (DFID 1996). Participatory Forest Management is used as an umbrella term to include shared forest management, joint forest management, collaborative forest management and community forestry.

Permanent Forest Estate24

Land, whether public or private, secured by law and kept under permanent forest cover. This includes land for the production of timber and other forest products, for the protection of soil and water, and for the conservation of biological diversity, as well as land intended to fulfill a combination of these functions.

Pioneer species

Heavily light-demanding and short-lived species that can rapidly invade large canopy gaps in disturbed natural forests and colonize open land.

Planted forest

Forest stand that has been artificially established by planting or seeding.

Reclamation

A management strategy aiming at recovering productivity at a degraded site using mostly exotic tree species.

Reforestation

re-establishment of trees and understorey plants at a site immediately after removal of natural forest cover.

(Forest) Rehabilitation

A management strategy applied in degraded forest lands that aims at re-establishing site productivity and protective functions and many of the ecological services provided by a functional forest or woodland ecosystem.

Residual stand

Forest that remains after harvesting and extraction.

(Forest) Restoration

A management strategy applied in degraded primary forest areas. Forest restoration aims to enhance and accelerate natural processes of forest regeneration in order to regain the elastic capacity of the forest ecosystem.

Secondary forest

Woody vegetation re-growing on land that was totally (or at least 90%) cleared of its original forest vegetation.

Silviculture

The art and science of producing and tending forests by manipulating its establishment, species composition, structure and dynamic to fulfill the management objectives.

Stakeholders

Any individuals or groups who are directly or indirectly affected by, or interested in a given resource (in this case forest) and that have a stake in it.

Shifting agriculture

Used here as a synonym for shifting or swidden cultivation, or "culture itinérante" in French. The burning and cleaning of forest vegetation and subsequent plantation of agricultural crops for a short period of time (1 to 5 years) followed by abandonment.

Succession

Progressive change in species composition and forest structure caused by natural processes over time.

Sustained yield

Production of forest products in perpetuity, ensuring that the harvesting rate does not exceed the rate of replacement (natural and/or artificial) in a given area over the long term. Sustained yield is a part of the concept of sustainability in forestry.

Tenure

Socially defined agreements held by individuals or groups, recognized by legal statutes or customary practice, regarding the bundle of rights and duties of ownership, holding, access and/or usage of a particular land unit or the associated resources there within (such as individual trees, plant species, water, minerals, etc.).

User rights

Rights for the use of forest resources that can be defined by local custom, agreements, or prescribed by other entities holding access rights. These rights may restrict the use of particular resources to specific harvesting levels or specific extraction techniques.

Yield regulation

The techniques for calculating and controlling the harvesting level to ensure that sustained yield is respected.

ANNEX 5

DEFINITIONS RELATING TO LAND USE, LAND-USE CHANGE AND FORESTRY ACTIVITIES UNDER THE KYOTO PROTOCOL

as presented in Annex of Report Of The Conference Of The Parties On Its Seventh Session, Held At Marrakesh From 29 October To 10 November 2001, Addendum Part Two: Action Taken By The Conference Of The Parties Volume I (UNFCCC 2001)

For land use, land-use change and forestry activities under Article1 3 [of the Kyoto Protocol], paragraphs 3 and 4, the following definitions shall apply:

(a) "Forest" is a minimum area of land of 0.05-1.0 hectares with tree crown cover (or equivalent stocking level) of more than 10-30 per cent with trees with the potential to reach a minimum height of 2-5 metres at maturity in situ. A forest may consist either of closed forest formations where trees of various storeys and undergrowth cover a high proportion of the ground or open forest. Young natural stands and all plantations which have yet to reach a crown density of 10-30 per cent or tree height of 2-5 metres are included under forest, as are areas normally forming part of the forest area which are temporarily unstocked as a result of human intervention such as harvesting or natural causes but which are expected to revert to forest.

(b) "Afforestation" is the direct human-induced conversion of land that has not been forested for a period of at least 50 years to forested land through planting, seeding and/or the human-induced promotion of natural seed sources;

(c) "Reforestation" is the direct human-induced conversion of non-forested land to forested land through planting, seeding and/or the human-induced promotion of natural seed sources, on land that was forested but that has been converted to non-forested land. For the first commitment period, reforestation activities will be limited to reforestation occurring on those lands that did not contain forest on 31 December 1989;

(d) "Deforestation" is the direct human-induced conversion of forested land to nonforested land;

(e) "Revegetation" is a direct human-induced activity to increase carbon stocks on sites through the establishment of vegetation that covers a minimum area of 0.05 hectares and does not meet the definitions of afforestation and reforestation contained here;

(f) "Forest management" is a system of practices for stewardship and use of forest land aimed at fulfilling relevant ecological (including biological diversity), economic and social functions of the forest in a sustainable manner;

(g) "Cropland management" is the system of practices on land on which agricultural crops are grown and on land that is set aside or temporarily not being used for crop production;

(h) "Grazing land management" is the system of practices on land used for livestock production aimed at manipulating the amount and type of vegetation and livestock produced.

19 The Guidelines are still a draft and the definitions have not yet been endorsed by the ITTC.

20 As the world's forests have hundreds of millions of dwellers, there is also the philosophical issue whether their activities, often as an essential part of relatively stable ecosystems, should be considered `human induced' in this context.

21 Source: The Convention of Biological Diversity

22 Source: Bruenig 1996

23 Source: Ford-Robinson, cited in Wadsworth (1996)

24 Source: ITTO

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