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3. Post-harvest Management Procedures that are Critical to Maintaining the Quality and Safety of Horticultural Crops


3.1 Packing and packaging of fruits and vegetables

Preparation of produce for market may be done either in the field or at the packing house. This involves cleaning, sanitizing, and sorting according to quality and size, waxing and, where appropriate, treatment with an approved fungicide prior to packing into shipping containers. Packaging protects the produce from mechanical injury, and contamination during marketing. Corrugated fiberboard containers are commonly used for the packaging of produce, although reusable plastic containers can be used for that purpose. Packaging accessories such as trays, cups, wraps, liners, and pads may be used to help immobilize the produce within the packaging container while serving the purpose of facilitating moisture retention, chemical treatment and ethylene absorption. Either hand-packing or mechanical packing systems may be used. Packing and packaging methods can greatly influence air flow rates around the commodity, thereby affecting temperature and relative humidity management of produce while in storage or in transit.

3.2 Temperature and relative humidity management

Temperature is the most important environmental factor that influences the deterioration of harvested commodities. Most perishable horticultural commodities have an optimal shelf-life at temperatures of approximately 0 °C. The rate of deterioration of perishables however increases two to three-fold with every 10 °C increase in temperature (Table 1). Temperature has a significant effect on how other internal and external factors influence the commodity, and dramatically affects spore germination and the growth of pathogens.

Figure 5: Packaging of Guavas

Figure 6: Sizing of Tomatoes

Figure 7: Machine Vision Sorting of Citrus Fruit

Table 1: Effect of temperature on the deterioration rate of a non-chilling sensitive commodity

Temperature
(°C)

Assumed
Q10*

Relative velocity
of deterioration

Relative
postharvest-
life

Loss per day

(%)

0

-

1.0

100

1

10

3.0

3.0

33

3

20

2.5

7.5

13

8

30

2.0

15.0

7

14

40

1.5

22.5

4

25

Table 1: Effect of temperature on the deterioration rate of a non-chilling sensitive commodity

Temperatures either above or below the optimal range for fresh produce can cause rapid deterioration due to the following disorders:

Freezing Perishable commodities are generally high in water content, and possess large, highly vacuolate cells. The freezing point of their tissues is relatively high (ranging from -3 °C to -0.5 °C), and disruption caused by freezing generally results in immediate collapse of their tissues and a total loss of cellular integrity. Freezing occurs in cold storage systems either due to inadequate refrigerator design, or to thermostat failure. Freezing can also occur upon exposure to inclement weather conditions as occurs when produce is allowed to remain for even short periods of time on unprotected transportation docks during winter.

Chilling injury Some commodities (chiefly those native to the tropics and subtropics) respond unfavorably to storage at low temperatures which are well above their freezing points, but below a critical temperature termed their chilling threshold temperature or lowest safe temperature (Table 2). Chilling injury is manifested in a variety of symptoms including surface and internal discoloration, pitting, water soaking, failure to ripen, uneven ripening, development of off flavors and heightened susceptibility to pathogen attack.

Figure 8: Chilling Injury on Mangoes

Lowest safe
temperature (°C)

Commodity

3

Asparagus, cranberry, jujube

4

Cantaloupe, certain apple cultivars (such as McIntosh and Yellow Newton), certain avocado cultivars (such as Booth and Lula), lychee, potato, tamarillo

5

Cactus pear, cowpeas, durian, feijoa, guava, kumquat, lima bean, longan, mandarin, orange, pepino

7

Certain avocado cultivars (such as Fuerte and Hass), chayote, okra, olive, pepper, pineapple, pomegranate, snap bean

10

Carambola, cucumber, eggplant, grapefruit, lime, mango (ripe), melons (casaba, crenshaw, honeydew, persian), papaya, passion fruit, plantain, rambutan, squash (soft rind), taro, tomato (ripe), watermelon

13

Banana, breadfruit, cherimoya, ginger, jackfruits, jicama, lemon, mango (mature-green), mangosteen, pumpkin and hard-rind squash, sapotes, sweet potato, tomato (mature-green), yam

Table 2: Classification of chilling-sensitive fruits and vegetables according to their lowest safe temperature for transport and storage

Heat injury High temperature conditions are also injurious to perishable crops. Transpiration is vital to maintaining optimal growth temperatures in growing plants. Organs removed from the plant, however, lack the protective effects of transpiration, and direct sources of heat, such as sunlight, can rapidly elevate the temperature of tissues to above the thermal death point of their cells, leading to localized bleaching, necrosis (sunburn or sunscald) or general collapse.

Relative humidity (RH) is defined as the moisture content (as water vapor) of the atmosphere, expressed as a percentage of the amount of moisture that can be retained by the atmosphere (moisture holding capacity) at a given temperature and pressure without condensation. The moisture holding capacity of air increases with temperature. Water loss is directly proportional to the vapor pressure difference (VPD) between the commodity and its environment. VPD is inversely related to the RH of the air surrounding the commodity.

RH can influence water loss, decay development, the incidence of some physiological disorders, and uniformity of fruit ripening. Condensation of moisture on the commodity (sweating) over long periods of time is probably more important in enhancing decay than is the RH of ambient air. An appropriate RH range for storage of fruits is 85 to 95 percent while that for most vegetables varies between 90 and 98 percent. The optimal RH range for dry onions and pumpkins is 70 to 75 percent. Some root vegetables, such as carrot, parsnip, and radish, can best be held at 95 to 100 percent RH.

RH can be controlled by one or more of the following procedures:

(1) adding moisture (water mist or spray, steam) to air with the use of humidifiers;

(2) regulating air movement and ventilation in relation to the produce load in the cold storage room;

(3) maintaining the temperature of the refrigeration coils in the storage room or transit vehicle to within about 1 °C of the air temperature;

(4) providing moisture barriers that insulate walls of storage rooms and transit vehicles;

(5) adding polyethylene liners in packing containers and using perforated polymeric films for packaging;

(6) wetting floors in storage rooms;

(7) adding crushed ice in shipping containers or in retail displays for commodities that are not injured by the practice;

(8) sprinkling produce with sanitized, clean water during retail marketing of commodities that benefit from misting, such as leafy vegetables, cool-season root vegetables, and immature fruit vegetables (such as snap beans, peas, sweet corn, and summer squash).

3.3 Cooling methods

Temperature management is the most effective tool for extending the shelf life of fresh horticultural commodities. It begins with the rapid removal of field heat by using one of the cooling methods listed in Table 3.

Variable

Cooling method

Ice

Hydro

Vacuum

Forced-air

Room

Cooling times (h)

0.1-0.3

0.1-1.0

0.3-2.0

1.0-10.0

20-100

Water contact with the product

yes

yes

no

no

no

Product moisture loss (%)

0-0.5

0-0.5

2.0-4.0

0.1-2.0

0.1-2.0

Capital cost

high

low

medium

low

low

Energy efficiency

low

high

high

low

low

Table 3: Comparison of methods used for cooling

Packing fresh produce with crushed or flaked ice provides rapid cooling, and can provide a source of cooling and high RH during subsequent handling. The use of crushed ice is, however, limited to produce that is tolerant to direct contact with ice and packaged in moisture-resistant containers.

Clean, sanitized water is used as the cooling medium for the hydrocooling (shower or immersion systems) of commodities that tolerate water contact and are packaged in moisture-resistant containers. Vacuum cooling is generally applied to leafy vegetables that release water vapor quickly, thereby allowing them to be rapidly cooled. During forced-air cooling on the other hand, refrigerated air is forced through produce packed in boxes or pallet bins. Forced-air cooling is applicable to most horticultural perishables.

Precise temperature and RH management are required to provide the optimum environment for fresh fruits and vegetables during cooling and storage. Precision temperature management (PTM) tools, including time-temperature monitors, are increasingly being employed in cooling and storage facilities.

Figure 9: Forced-Air Cooling of Melons

3.4 Refrigerated transport and storage

Cold storage facilities should be appropriately designed, of good construction, and be adequately equipped. Their insulation should include a complete vapor barrier on the warm side of the insulation; sturdy floors; adequate and well-positioned doors for loading and unloading; effective distribution of refrigerated air; sensitive and properly located controls; refrigerated coil surfaces designed to adequately minimize differences between the coil and air temperatures; and adequate capacity for expected needs. Commodities should be stacked in the cold room or the refrigerated vehicle with air spaces between pallets and room walls so as to ensure proper air circulation. Storage rooms should not be loaded beyond their capacity limit if proper cooling is to be achieved. Commodity temperature rather than air temperature should be measured in these facilities.

Temperature management during transportation of fresh fruits and vegetables over long distances is critical. Loads must be stacked so as to enable proper air circulation, in order to facilitate removal of heat from the produce as well as to dissipate incoming heat from the atmosphere and off the road. Stacking of loads must also incorporate consideration for minimizing mechanical damage. Transit vehicles must be cooled prior to loading the fresh produce. Delays between cooling after harvest and loading into transit vehicles should also be avoided. Proper temperature maintenance should be ensured throughout the handling system.

Figure 10: Refrigerated intermodal transport container

As far as possible, environmental conditions (temperature; relative humidity; concentrations of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethylene) should be optimized in transport vehicles. Treatment with ethylene to initiate ripening during transportation is feasible, and is commercially used to a limited extent on mature green bananas and tomatoes. Produce should be cooled prior to loading and should be loaded with an air space between the palletized product and the walls of the transport vehicles in order to facilitate temperature control. Vibration during transportation should be minimized, so as to avoid damage due to bruising. Controlled-atmosphere and precision temperature management should, where possible, be observed so as to allow non-chemical insect control for markets which possess quarantine restrictions against pests endemic to exporting countries and for markets that do not want their produce exposed to chemical fumigants.

Mixing several produce items in one load is common and often compromises have to be made in selecting an optimal temperature and atmospheric composition when transporting chilling-sensitive with non-chilling sensitive commodities or ethylene-producing with ethylene-sensitive commodities. In the latter case, ethylene scrubbers can be used to remove ethylene from the circulating air within the vehicle. Several types of insulating pallet covers are available for protecting chilling-sensitive commodities when transported with non-chilling-sensitive commodities at temperatures below their threshold chilling temperatures.

3.5 The cold chain and its importance

The cold chain encompasses all the critical steps and processes that foods and other perishable products must undergo in order to maintain their quality. Like any chain, the cold chain is only as strong as its weakest link. Major limitations experienced by the cold-chain include poor temperature management due to either the lack of, or limitations in, refrigeration, handling, storage, and humidity control. Investment in cold chain infrastructure ultimately leads to a reduction in the level of losses and quality degradation in fresh produce, with overall net positive economic returns.

3.6 Return on investment in temperature and relative humidity management

Deficiencies in cold chain management whether due to limitations in refrigeration, improper handling and storage, or inadequate humidity control, can lead to losses in profits as well as in horticultural crops. Overcoming such deficiencies necessitates improvements in methodologies, operations and handling along the chain. Often the level of investment required in overcoming such deficiencies is minimal in comparison to the level of losses sustained over time.

A University of California study determined that a one-hour delay in cooling strawberries after harvest resulted in a 10 percent loss due to decay during marketing. The resulting economic loss exceeded the increased cost of expedited handling of the strawberries by more frequent deliveries of harvested fruit to the cooling facility and initiation of forced-air cooling. Similarly, a University of Georgia study showed that poor temperature management of lettuce resulted in a net income loss of US$172.50 per truck-load of 900 cartons.

Maintaining The Cold Chain For Perishables

Harvest

· Minimize delays before cooling


· Cool the product thoroughly as soon as possible



Cooling

· Store the product at optimum temperature



Temporary

· Practice first in first out rotation

Storage

· Ship to market as soon as possible



Transport

· Use refrigerated loading area

to Market

· Cool truck before loading


· Load pallets towards the center of the truck


· Put insulating plastic strips inside door of reefer
if truck makes multiple stops


· Avoid delays during transport


· Monitor product temperature during transport



Handling

· Use a refrigerated unloading area

at destination

· Measure product temperature


· Move product quickly to the proper storage area


· Transport to retail markets or foodservice


operations in refrigerated trucks


· Display at proper temperature range



Handling at

· Store product at proper temperature

home or

· Use the product as soon as possible

foodservice


outlet


A University of California study determined that excess weight loss coupled with color deterioration resulting from delays between harvest and cooling, improper refrigeration temperature and relative humidity control during the shipping of table grapes resulted in a 15 percent loss in the value of that commodity. Resultant monetary losses were greater than the cost of improved management of temperature and RH of the grapes with perforated plastic liners in the boxes and by minimizing delays prior to cooling with humidified, forced air.


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