Bruce Mukanda, Lusaka, Zambia
Introduction
Africa, with a human population of about 856,174,814, occupies a total surface area of 30,359,509 square kilometers of which 98% is land and 2% is water. About 10.5% of the land is arable, most of it found in sub-Saharan Africa, while 3.2% has permanent crops and the rest is used for other purposes (Table 1).
Given the large land and water resources available, agricultural forms a significant proportion of the economies most African countries, especially sub-Saharan Africa, with the GDP in most of these countries ranging between 20% to 74% of the total GDP (Table 2). This obviously means that the production of raw materials and food are significant economic activities in these countries and the continent as a whole, and positions the continent as an important bread-basket for the world.
However, in most African countries dualistic agricultural systems are practiced, and where this is so, crop production seems to take higher priority over livestock (Table 3). This is despite the fact that livestock production in most countries serves as a source of protein, raw materials such as hides for the leather industry and draft power, and most communities recognize the important role livestock plays in the economies of these countries.
Most of the livestock resources in African countries are found in the rural/communal sector. In Botswana, for instance, 80% cattle are found in this sector, while in Zambia 70% of this species is owned by rural keepers. In most African countries, the major purposes of livestock production in this sector are as a symbol of prestige, a fallback resource and draft power. Hence the sector is in most cases characterized by low productive, transhumance practices and low commercial drive. There is usually no sustained commercial supply of animals to the market except when there is need for financial resources. This, therefore, means that the sector has no sustained profit motive.
In Africa, while the level of consumption of livestock products such as meat, milk and eggs is high in urban areas, this consumption is very low in most rural communities mainly owing to cultural and economic reasons and religious beliefs, yet the sector holds the bulk of livestock resources. This means that the demand for livestock product in rural communities is very low.
Lastly, most African counties run budget deficits (Table 2). This means that one of the measures they have to take in running the economy is to prioritise those sectors they consider more important. One of the influencing criteria for this prioritization is social pressure. The more a society directly or indirectly demands government intervention into a particular sector the higher will that sector be on the priority list. Since most livestock production is not profit and sustained demand driven, it receives low prioritization, resulting in, among other things, inadequate funding to veterinary services, and consequently, inadequate enforcement of regulations.
Veterinary drug regulatory systems
Most African countries do recognize the importance of food hygiene particularly with regards to meat safety, and have laws and regulations that govern food production and processing including such aspects as meat inspection and drug residue levels. This results more from perceived human health concerns rather than sustained consumer pressure for quality products. However, enforcement of such laws and regulations is usually poorly done. Farmers, for instance, sometimes buy veterinary drugs over the counter and administer then on their own. In most cases this results in abuse. All this is attributed to several reasons. Firstly financial resources are usually inadequate for law enforcement agencies to carry out their work effectively. Support facilities such as laboratories are usually ill equipped in terms of both equipment and personnel. This is further compounded by the fact that in terms of prioritization for resource allocation, livestock production is lowly place by most African governments.
The implementation of regulatory systems that ensure food safety require an appreciable amount of resources both from the government and producers point of view. In order to ensure safety of his products for consumers, an individual farmer, for example, has to invest financial resources in animal disease control measures, whether preventive or curative. A processor has to invest appreciably in processes and equipment that assure quality and safety for his products. The producers' willingness to investment into quality and safety assurance systems depends largely on the demand of the consumers and the level of profits or gains he makes by supplying such products. The higher the level of such demand the higher the investment the farmer or processor has to make in order for his products to be accepted by the market.
In dealing with ADI and MRL for residues of veterinary drugs, a number of issues arise. The control of the administration of drugs becomes difficult where resources are not adequate. The process of identifying residue substances requires precision equipment most of which is very expensive. Un less a country has high priority in this regards, few will be willing to invest in them. In situations where LODs and LOQs become lower and lower more sensitive techniques and equipment is required and, as already noted, such levels may be as a result of contamination in one form or another, which also need to be regulated carefully. All these factors put together may require huge resources to invest in.
The relationship between consumer demand, producer motives and market strength on one hand and regulation on the other
When consumers demand a product they do so from a point of view of quantity and quality. The level of each one of these may vary. If the quantity and quality demanded are high, the producers of the products must strive to satisfy them as much as possible otherwise they loose the market. In other words, producers are initially stimulated into ensuring high quality by the level of demand by consumers in both cases.
Producers, on the other hand, are motivated to produce products demanded by consumers if this entails attractive profits for them. Their biggest motivation is profit. If investing into producing the quantity and quality demanded by the market leads to good profits they will be willing to do so.
Consequently when the demand for quantity and quality are high and attractive to the producer in terms of profit, the producers respond, in the process complying with all requirements.
The consumers demand for quality usually includes three major aspects. These are disease control measures implemented in order to ensure that animals slaughtered for food are health, physical quality of the product and ethical considerations. When a producer undertakes to supply the market with products such as meat he has to ensure that that the quality demanded, taking into account these three aspects, is met. The contrary may lead to his products not being bought and therefore loosing his gains. He must then ensure that he invests in quality assurance measures.
On the other hand, if the consumer demand is low, it follows that the producers will not be attracted and may not produce the goods they intended. Sometimes the consumers may demand a certain quantity but not very high quality. In this case, the producers will supply the quantity and low quality, as they are not pressure to meet high standards.
Independent of the quantity or quality the consumer demand, the producers' desire to supply the goods may not be there if they have no profit motive. They therefore do not see the need to invest in producing the quantity and quality the market dictates.
It follows therefore that when the consumers demand is low and the producer motive is not driven by profit quality of the product will also be low.
The African Scenario
Given the fact that the demand for livestock products in most rural communities in Africa is very low, the market for such products within these communities is very low.
Since most communities in Africa do not demand high qualities of livestock products and most rural producers do not have profit motives for their production, the quantity and quality demanded and supplied is low, as both the consumers and the producers do not see the need for higher ones. This leads to low level of compliance with food safety and related regulations.
In addition, since most do not rural markets do not require high standards, there is little pressure on governing authorities to enforce regulations. This means that regulation of foods safety and hygiene becomes of low priority and their enforcement is weakened. In such situations, when governments try to enforce regulations just as an obligation to society even when society has not demanded it, it becomes difficult to achieve and may sometimes lead to black markets.
However, when one takes the example of Botswana, where livestock is the main livelihood of most rural populations, the rural producers supply large numbers of animals to the market in order for them to obtain their livelihood. The government is also willing to support livestock investment ventures with huge financial backing, such as the trace-back system demanded by the EU.
In a situation where the local market is not available for livestock products, despite there being willing producers, a market has to be found elsewhere in order to assure the livelihood of the producers. Botswana also serves as an example of this as it exports huge amounts of meet to the EU. The quantity and quality supplied by producers in this case will be dictated by this external market, and in this case by the EU.
However, when the demand of an external market becomes too high there is a possibility of it not being attractive to the producers. Most African countries are finding it extremely difficult to export livestock products to developed trading partners because of the many stringent requirements that have been put in place. In the specific case of veterinary drug residues it will be extremely difficult for African countries, given the factors discussed above, to make the investment required to detect these residues at LOD or LOQ. As a result this will hinder them from complying with the export requirements and consequently will not be able to trade in meat and related products.
Conclusion
Africa, having a great potential for agricultural production, is an important bread-basket for the world. In this position the continent will be required to produce sufficient quantities and quality of food products, including those derived from livestock, not only for its own market, but also for the external one. The quality of food supplied will depend on Africa's ability to institute and enforce regulations that ensure that international standards are adhered to. Among these will be those to do with MRL and ADI for veterinary drug residues, whose use is widespread on the continent. However, in order to achieve this the continent will have to make considerable investments into institutions, equipment and personnel needed for this task. With the current levels of budgetary deficits, coupled with the generally low livestock product consumption levels and insufficient profit motive, there is no significant motivation for producing required quantities and quality of livestock products especially meat, milk and eggs. There is also failure to enforce regulations and, therefore, putting consumers at risk. Issues of veterinary drugs without ADI/MRL become of great concern in this situation. There is need to find an innovative way of ensuring that Africa moves to implement sufficient standards for food products in general and veterinary drug use in particular.
Recommendations
In order to deal with the African situation, the following suggestions should be considered:
Concerted efforts should be made to educate the rural population on the importance of consuming livestock products;
Similarly, efforts should be made to educate the rural producers on the benefits of profit driven production. However, this is a toll order as it involves changing people's attitudes.
The most effective alternative to the education of the rural producers, is the encouragement of out-grower schemes, especially among the already enlightened part of the rural population;
The establishment of out-grower schemes can then be used as a means of ensuring that farmers are provided with the proper professional veterinary service and ensure that compliance with regulations regarding the use of veterinary drugs, among other things, is observed. In this case, such services could be included as one of the prerequisites for eligibility for a farmer to participate in the scheme. In addition, strict monitoring of drug usage and residue levels in products could also form part of the package. Governments can then work through such schemes to regulate veterinary drug usage and promote good veterinary practices in general in accordance with the dictates of international standards; and
Given their economic situation, not all African counties may manage to implement quality assurance schemes without assistance from its cooperating partners. It is, therefore, important for international assistance to Africa, especially with regards to the issue of veterinary drug residues, to be enhanced.
Table 1: Surface Area and Land Use on the African Continent
|
Surface Area (sq km) |
Land Use (%) |
||||
Country |
Total |
Land |
Water |
Arable |
Crops |
Other |
Algeria |
2,381,740 |
2,381,740 |
0 |
3 |
0 |
97 |
Angola |
1,246,700 |
1,246,700 |
0 |
2 |
0 |
97 |
Benin |
112,620 |
110,620 |
2,000 |
15 |
1 |
83 |
Botswana |
600,370 |
585,370 |
15,000 |
1 |
0 |
99 |
Burkina Faso |
274,200 |
273,800 |
400 |
12 |
0 |
87 |
Burundi |
27,830 |
25,650 |
2,180 |
30 |
13 |
57 |
Cameroon |
475,440 |
469,440 |
6,000 |
13 |
3 |
85 |
Cape Verde |
4,033 |
4,033 |
0 |
10 |
1 |
90 |
Cen. Afri. Rep. |
622,984 |
622,984 |
0 |
3 |
0 |
97 |
Chad |
1,284,000 |
1,259,200 |
24,800 |
3 |
0 |
97 |
Comoros |
2,170 |
2,170 |
0 |
35 |
18 |
47 |
Congo D.R. |
2,345,410 |
2,267,600 |
77,810 |
3 |
1 |
97 |
Congo Rep |
342,000 |
341,500 |
500 |
1 |
0 |
99 |
Cote d'Ivoire |
322,460 |
318,000 |
4,460 |
9 |
14 |
77 |
Djibouti |
23,000 |
22,980 |
20 |
0 |
0 |
100 |
Egypt |
1,001,450 |
995,450 |
6,000 |
3 |
0 |
97 |
Equ. Guinea |
28,051 |
28,051 |
0 |
5 |
4 |
92 |
Eritrea |
121,320 |
121,320 |
0 |
4 |
0 |
96 |
Ethiopia |
1,127,127 |
1,119,683 |
7,444 |
10 |
1 |
89 |
Gabon |
267,667 |
257,667 |
10,000 |
1 |
1 |
98 |
Gambia, The |
11,300 |
10,000 |
1,300 |
20 |
1 |
80 |
Ghana |
239,460 |
230,940 |
8,520 |
16 |
7 |
77 |
Guinea |
245,857 |
245,857 |
0 |
4 |
2 |
94 |
Guinea Bissau |
36,120 |
28,000 |
8,120 |
11 |
2 |
88 |
Kenya |
582,650 |
569,250 |
13,400 |
7 |
1 |
92 |
Lesotho |
30,355 |
30,355 |
0 |
11 |
0 |
89 |
Liberia |
111,370 |
96,320 |
15,050 |
2 |
2 |
96 |
Libya |
1,759,540 |
1,759,540 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
99 |
Madagascar |
587,040 |
581,540 |
5,500 |
4 |
1 |
95 |
Malawi |
118,480 |
94,080 |
24,400 |
20 |
1 |
79 |
Mali |
1,240,000 |
1,220,000 |
20,000 |
4 |
0 |
96 |
Mauritania |
1,030,700 |
1,030,400 |
300 |
0 |
0 |
100 |
Mauritius |
2,040 |
2,030 |
10 |
49 |
3 |
48 |
Morocco |
446,550 |
446,300 |
250 |
20 |
2 |
78 |
Mozambique |
801,590 |
784,090 |
17,500 |
4 |
0 |
96 |
Namibia |
825,418 |
825,418 |
0 |
1 |
0 |
99 |
Niger |
1,267,000 |
1,266,700 |
300 |
4 |
0 |
96 |
Nigeria |
923,768 |
910,768 |
13,000 |
31 |
3 |
66 |
Reunion |
2,517 |
2,507 |
10 |
13 |
2 |
85 |
Rwanda |
26,338 |
24,948 |
1,390 |
32 |
10 |
57 |
Sao Tome & P. |
1,001 |
1,001 |
0 |
2 |
41 |
57 |
Senegal |
196,190 |
192,000 |
4,190 |
12 |
0 |
88 |
Seychelles |
455 |
455 |
0 |
2 |
13 |
84 |
Sierra Leone |
71,740 |
71,620 |
120 |
7 |
1 |
92 |
Somalia |
637,657 |
627,337 |
10,320 |
2 |
0 |
98 |
South Africa |
1,219,912 |
1,219,912 |
0 |
12 |
1 |
87 |
Sudan |
2,505,810 |
2,376,000 |
129,810 |
7 |
0 |
93 |
Swaziland |
17,363 |
17,203 |
160 |
10 |
1 |
90 |
Tanzania |
945,087 |
886,037 |
59,050 |
4 |
1 |
95 |
Togo |
56,785 |
54,385 |
2,400 |
41 |
2 |
57 |
Tunisia |
163,610 |
155,360 |
8,250 |
19 |
13 |
68 |
Uganda |
236,040 |
199,710 |
36,330 |
25 |
9 |
66 |
West. Sahara |
266,000 |
266,000 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
100 |
Zambia |
752,614 |
740,724 |
11,890 |
7 |
0 |
93 |
Zimbabwe |
390,580 |
386,670 |
3,910 |
8 |
0 |
91 |
AFRICA |
30,359,509 |
29,807,415 |
552,094 |
10 |
3 |
86 |
Source: World Fact Book (CIA)
Table 2: GDP and Budgets of African Countries
|
GDP (ppp) |
Budget (Billion US$) |
||||||
Country |
Total (US$m) |
P/Cap. (US$) |
Agric (%) |
Indus. (%) |
Serv. (%) |
Revenue |
Expenditure |
Deficit |
Algeria |
167,000.00 |
5300 |
8 |
60 |
32 |
20.3 |
18.8 |
1.5 |
Angola |
16,900.00 |
1600 |
8 |
67 |
25 |
0.928 |
2.5 |
-1.572 |
Benin |
7,300.00 |
1070 |
38 |
15 |
47 |
0.377 |
0.562 |
-0.185 |
Botswana |
15,100.00 |
9500 |
4 |
44 |
52 |
2.3 |
2.4 |
-0.1 |
Burkina Faso |
13,600.00 |
1080 |
35 |
17 |
48 |
0.316 |
0 |
0.316 |
Burundi |
3,800.00 |
600 |
50 |
19 |
31 |
0.125 |
0.176 |
-0.051 |
Cameroon |
27,000.00 |
1700 |
46 |
21 |
33 |
2.2 |
2.1 |
0.1 |
Cape Verde |
600.00 |
1400 |
11 |
17 |
72 |
0.112 |
0.198 |
-0.086 |
Cen. Afri. Rep. |
4,700.00 |
1300 |
55 |
20 |
25 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Chad |
10,000.00 |
1100 |
38 |
13 |
49 |
0.198 |
0.218 |
-0.02 |
Comoros |
441.00 |
720 |
40 |
4 |
56 |
0.028 |
0 |
0.028 |
Congo D.R. |
34,000.00 |
610 |
55 |
11 |
34 |
0.269 |
0.244 |
0.025 |
Congo Rep |
2,500.00 |
900 |
10 |
48 |
42 |
0.87 |
0.97 |
-0.1 |
Cote d'Ivoire |
24,500.00 |
1500 |
29 |
22 |
49 |
1.72 |
2.4 |
-0.68 |
Djibouti |
619.00 |
1300 |
3.5 |
15.8 |
80.7 |
0.135 |
0.182 |
-0.047 |
Egypt |
268,000.00 |
3900 |
17 |
34 |
49 |
21.5 |
26.2 |
-4.7 |
Equ. Guinea |
1,270.00 |
2700 |
20 |
60 |
20 |
0.2 |
0.158 |
0.042 |
Eritrea |
3,300.00 |
740 |
17 |
29 |
54 |
0.206 |
0.616 |
-0.41 |
Ethiopia |
50,600.00 |
750 |
52 |
11 |
37 |
1.8 |
1.9 |
-0.1 |
Gabon |
7,000.00 |
5700 |
15 |
60 |
25 |
1.8 |
1.8 |
0 |
Gambia, The |
2,600.00 |
1800 |
33 |
13 |
54 |
0.091 |
0.081 |
0.01 |
Ghana |
42,500.00 |
2100 |
36 |
25 |
39 |
1.603 |
1.975 |
-0.372 |
Guinea |
15,900.00 |
2000 |
25 |
37 |
38 |
0.396 |
0.472 |
-0.076 |
Guinea Bissau |
1,100.00 |
800 |
62 |
12 |
26 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Kenya |
32,000.00 |
1020 |
24 |
13 |
63 |
2.91 |
2.97 |
-0.06 |
Lesotho |
5,600.00 |
2700 |
20 |
46 |
34 |
0.076 |
0.08 |
-0.004 |
Liberia |
3,500.00 |
1100 |
74 |
7 |
19 |
0.085 |
0.905 |
-0.82 |
Libya |
41,000.00 |
7600 |
9 |
45 |
46 |
13.7 |
8.6 |
5.1 |
Madagascar |
12,600.00 |
760 |
25 |
12 |
63 |
0.553 |
0.735 |
-0.182 |
Malawi |
7,200.00 |
670 |
37 |
16 |
47 |
0.49 |
0.523 |
-0.033 |
Mali |
9,800.00 |
860 |
45 |
17 |
48 |
0.764 |
0.828 |
-0.064 |
Mauritania |
5,300.00 |
1900 |
25 |
29 |
46 |
0.421 |
0.378 |
0.043 |
Mauritius |
13,200.00 |
11000 |
6 |
33 |
61 |
1.1 |
1.2 |
-0.1 |
Morocco |
115,000.00 |
3900 |
15 |
33 |
52 |
13.8 |
14.6 |
-0.8 |
Mozambique |
19,200.00 |
1000 |
22 |
23 |
55 |
0.393 |
1.025 |
-0.632 |
Namibia |
12,600.00 |
6900 |
11 |
28 |
61 |
0.883 |
0.95 |
-0.067 |
Niger |
8,800.00 |
830 |
39 |
17 |
44 |
0.32 |
0.32 |
0 |
Nigeria |
113,500.00 |
875 |
45 |
20 |
35 |
3.4 |
3.6 |
-0.2 |
Reunion |
3,600.00 |
4800 |
8 |
19 |
73 |
1.26 |
2.62 |
-1.36 |
Rwanda |
9,000.00 |
1200 |
45 |
20 |
35 |
0.199 |
0.445 |
-0.246 |
Sao Tome & P. |
200.00 |
1200 |
25 |
10 |
65 |
0.058 |
0.114 |
-0.056 |
Senegal |
16,200.00 |
1500 |
18 |
27 |
55 |
1.373 |
1.373 |
0 |
Seychelles |
626.00 |
7800 |
2.4 |
24.4 |
73.2 |
0.249 |
0.262 |
-0.013 |
Sierra Leone |
2,800.00 |
580 |
49 |
31 |
21 |
0.096 |
0.351 |
-0.255 |
Somalia |
4,100.00 |
550 |
65 |
10 |
25 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
South Africa |
432,000.00 |
10000 |
4.4 |
28.9 |
66.7 |
22.6 |
24.7 |
-2.1 |
Sudan |
52,900.00 |
1420 |
43 |
17 |
40 |
1.6 |
1.9 |
-0.3 |
Swaziland |
4,800.00 |
4400 |
17 |
44 |
39 |
0.448 |
0.507 |
-0.059 |
Tanzania |
22,500.00 |
630 |
48.1 |
15.4 |
36.5 |
1.01 |
1.38 |
-0.37 |
Togo |
8,000.00 |
1500 |
42 |
21 |
37 |
0.232 |
0.252 |
-0.02 |
Tunisia |
63,000.00 |
6500 |
12 |
32 |
56 |
5.2 |
5.7 |
-0.5 |
Uganda |
31,000.00 |
1260 |
43 |
19 |
38 |
0.959 |
1.04 |
-0.081 |
West. Sahara |
0.00 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
40 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
Zambia |
8,900.00 |
890 |
22 |
26 |
52 |
1.2 |
1.25 |
-0.05 |
Zimbabwe |
27,000.00 |
2400 |
18 |
24 |
58 |
2.5 |
2.6 |
-0.1 |
AFRICA |
1,806,256.00 |
2553.98148 |
29.007407 |
25.601852 |
45.492727 |
0 |
0 |
-9.807 |
Source: World Fact Book (CIA)
Table 3: List of Apparent Prioritisation of Agricultural Products
Country |
Agricultural Products |
Algeria |
wheat, barley, oats, grapes, olives, citrus, fruits; sheep, cattle |
Angola |
bananas, sugarcane, coffee, sisal, maize, cotton, manioc (tapioca), tobacco, vegetables, plantains; livestock; forest products; fish |
Benin |
cotton, maize, cassava (tapioca), yams, beans, palm oil, peanuts, livestock (2001) |
Botswana |
livestock, sorghum, maize, millet, beans, sunflowers, groundnuts |
Burkina Faso |
cotton, peanuts, shea nuts, sesame, sorghum, millet, maize, rice; livestock |
Burundi |
coffee, cotton, tea, maize, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, manioc (tapioca); beef, milk, hides |
Cameroon |
coffee, cocoa, cotton, rubber, bananas, oilseed, grains, root starches; livestock; timber |
Cape Verde |
bananas, maize, beans, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, coffee, peanuts; fish |
Cen. Afri. Rep. |
cotton, coffee, tobacco, manioc (tapioca), yams, millet, maize, bananas; timber |
Chad |
cotton, sorghum, millet, peanuts, rice, potatoes, manioc (tapioca); cattle, sheep, goats, camels |
Comoros |
vanilla, cloves, perfume essences, copra, coconuts, bananas, cassava (tapioca) |
Congo D.R. |
coffee, sugar, palm oil, rubber, tea, quinine, cassava (tapioca), palm oil, bananas, root crops, maize, fruits; wood products |
Congo Rep |
cassava (tapioca), sugar, rice, maize, peanuts, vegetables, coffee, cocoa; forest products |
Cote d'Ivoire |
coffee, cocoa beans, bananas, palm kernels, maize, rice, manioc (tapioca), sweet potatoes, sugar, cotton, rubber; timber |
Djibouti |
fruits, vegetables; goats, sheep, camels |
Egypt |
cotton, rice, maize, wheat, beans, fruits, vegetables; cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats |
Equ. Guinea |
coffee, cocoa, rice, yams, cassava (tapioca), bananas, palm oil nuts; livestock; timber |
Eritrea |
sorghum, lentils, vegetables, maize, cotton, tobacco, coffee, sisal; livestock, goats; fish |
Ethiopia |
cereals, pulses, coffee, oilseed, sugarcane, potatoes, qat; hides, cattle, sheep, goats |
Gabon |
cocoa, coffee, sugar, palm oil, rubber; cattle; okoume (a tropical softwood); fish |
Gambia, The |
rice, millet, sorghum, peanuts, maize, sesame, cassava (tapioca), palm kernels; cattle, sheep, goats |
Ghana |
cocoa, rice, coffee, cassava (tapioca), peanuts, maize, shea nuts, bananas; timber |
Guinea |
rice, coffee, pineapples, palm kernels, cassava (tapioca), bananas, sweet potatoes; cattle, sheep, goats; timber |
Guinea Bissau |
rice, maize, beans, cassava (tapioca), cashew nuts, peanuts, palm kernels, cotton; timber; fish |
Kenya |
tea, coffee, maize, wheat, sugarcane, fruit, vegetables; dairy products, beef, pork, poultry, eggs |
Lesotho |
maize, wheat, pulses, sorghum, barley; livestock |
Liberia |
rubber, coffee, cocoa, rice, cassava (tapioca), palm oil, sugarcane, bananas; sheep, goats; timber |
Libya |
wheat, barley, olives, dates, citrus, vegetables, peanuts, soybeans; cattle |
Madagascar |
coffee, vanilla, sugarcane, cloves, cocoa, rice, cassava (tapioca), beans, bananas, peanuts; livestock products |
Malawi |
tobacco, sugarcane, cotton, tea, maize, potatoes, cassava (tapioca), sorghum, pulses; groundnuts, Macadamia nuts; cattle, goats |
Mali |
cotton, millet, rice, maize, vegetables, peanuts; cattle, sheep, goats |
Mauritania |
dates, millet, sorghum, rice, maize, dates; cattle, sheep |
Mauritius |
sugarcane, tea, maize, potatoes, bananas, pulses; cattle, goats; fish |
Morocco |
barley, wheat, citrus, wine, vegetables, olives; livestock |
Mozambique |
cotton, cashew nuts, sugarcane, tea, cassava (tapioca), maize, coconuts, sisal, citrus and tropical fruits, potatoes, sunflowers; beef, poultry |
Namibia |
millet, sorghum, peanuts; livestock; fish |
Niger |
cowpeas, cotton, peanuts, millet, sorghum, cassava (tapioca), rice; cattle, sheep, goats, camels, donkeys, horses, poultry |
Nigeria |
cocoa, peanuts, palm oil, maize, rice, sorghum, millet, cassava (tapioca), yams, rubber; cattle, sheep, goats, pigs; timber; fish |
Reunion |
sugarcane, vanilla, tobacco, tropical fruits, vegetables, maize |
Rwanda |
coffee, tea, pyrethrum (insecticide made from chrysanthemums), bananas, beans, sorghum, potatoes; livestock |
Sao Tome & P. |
cocoa, coconuts, palm kernels, copra, cinnamon, pepper, coffee, bananas, papayas, beans; poultry; fish |
Senegal |
peanuts, millet, maize, sorghum, rice, cotton, tomatoes, green vegetables; cattle, poultry, pigs; fish |
Seychelles |
coconuts, cinnamon, vanilla, sweet potatoes, cassava (tapioca), bananas; broiler chickens; tuna fish |
Sierra Leone |
rice, coffee, cocoa, palm kernels, palm oil, peanuts; poultry, cattle, sheep, pigs; fish |
Somalia |
cattle, sheep, goats; bananas, sorghum, maize, coconuts, rice, sugarcane, mangoes, sesame seeds, beans; fish |
South Africa |
maize, wheat, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables; beef, poultry, mutton, wool, dairy products |
Sudan |
cotton, groundnuts (peanuts), sorghum, millet, wheat, gum Arabic, sugarcane, cassava (tapioca), mangos, papaya, bananas, sweet potatoes, sesame; sheep, livestock |
Swaziland |
sugarcane, cotton, maize, tobacco, rice, citrus, pineapples, sorghum, peanuts; cattle, goats, sheep |
Tanzania |
coffee, sisal, tea, cotton, pyrethrum (insecticide made from chrysanthemums), cashew nuts, tobacco, cloves, maize, wheat, cassava (tapioca), bananas, fruits, vegetables; cattle, sheep, goats |
Togo |
coffee, cocoa, cotton, yams, cassava (tapioca), maize, beans, rice, millet, sorghum; livestock; fish |
Tunisia |
olives, olive oil, grain, dairy products, tomatoes, citrus fruit, beef, sugar beets, dates, almonds |
Uganda |
coffee, tea, cotton, tobacco, cassava (tapioca), potatoes, maize, millet, pulses; beef, goat meat, milk, poultry, cut flowers |
West. Sahara |
fruits and vegetables (grown in the few oases); camels, sheep, goats (kept by nomads) |
Zambia |
maize, sorghum, rice, peanuts, sunflower seed, vegetables, flowers, tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, cassava (tapioca); cattle, goats, pigs, poultry, milk, eggs, hides; coffee |
Zimbabwe |
maize, cotton, tobacco, wheat, coffee, sugarcane, peanuts; cattle, sheep, goats, pigs |
Source: World Fact Book (CIA)