J. G. Mallia

The Black Maltese is a rustic, egg-type breed of Mediterranean poultry that is critically endangered. An in-situ conservation project for this breed has managed to temporarily create a small flock of about 400 chickens, derived from three separate sub-populations of Black Maltese. The egg production potential of this breed, together with chick survivability were assessed under a Áfamily poultry«, small-scale intensive system. Village volunteers (local women) in Malta carried out the work. The large number of eggs laid by two of the three lines, and precocious development and independent natures of the chicks were of particular interest. This breed shows several excellent traits that make it suitable for inclusion in family poultry projects. Some concerns were presented concerning the long-term viability of the in-situ conservation project for the Black Maltese, currently relying exclusively on short-term donors and volunteers.

Key words: Black Maltese, family poultry, poultry conservation and evaluation

The Black Maltese was formerly widely raised in the Maltese Islands under backyard or semi-intensive conditions for its prolific production of large white eggs. Since the 1960s, the role of family poultry farms, i.e. part-time farmers that were formerly largely responsible for the local production of fresh eggs, has steadily dwindled. Local egg production has now been entirely replaced by intensively reared hybrid strains of poultry; particularly those derived from the White Leghorn and Rhode Island Red. Family part-time poultry farmers have switched to raising commercial lines of meat-type poultry. The Rhode Island Red commercial strains have also replaced the Black Maltese from the remaining backyard laying flocks in Malta, mainly because the supply of chicks is reliable, and also a shift of consumer trends towards brown eggs (Mallia, 1999).

The Black Maltese is now critically endangered, and survives in small numbers (< 50 breeding adults) as a show-bird for poultry shows (Mallia, 1999). It is a breed with ÁMediterranean characteristics«, namely a light body frame, non-sitting, white egg-type chicken, and although a breed description is available (Mallia, 1999), little is know about the production potential of this population of poultry. Very little work has been done regarding the systematic characterisation and evaluation of genetic resources of local poultry, and this warranted encouragement (TraorÂ, 1999).

Most of the Mediterranean poultry breeds are Áegg-type« poultry; examples include the Minorca, Black Spanish and Andalusian. Contemporary specimens of these have been highly selected for specific show bird traits, often to the detriment of their egg-laying properties and rusticity. For example, the Minorca was selected for comb and lobe characteristics, compromising its egg-laying qualities (Anonymous, 1997). The (Black) Spanish was selected for particular facial features and the Andalusian for its blue, laced feathers (Brown, 1906).

Contemporary (selected) Mediterranean breeds are therefore far removed from their original role as highly efficient laying birds under family poultry management systems (i.e. backyard or free range). It is probable that unselected Mediterranean poultry, showing a greater degree of heterosis, is better adapted for egg production under challenging and variable (non-industrial) management conditions in hot and dry climates (Mallia, 1999). Investigations on the performance of indigenous birds in other parts of the world has shown that they may be highly productive (Nwosu, 1979; Mathur et al., 1989), however, unselected populations of Mediterranean chickens are relatively hard to locate. The Black Maltese represents a possibly very useful relict population of relatively unselected black Mediterranean poultry. It is to be noted that black Mediterranean fowl having marked present-day ÁMediterranean characteristics« were already present in Greece and Etruria (central Italy) in the 6th century BC (Mallia, 1999).

There has been very little characterisation of this breed and assessment of population numbers, except for one report by Mallia (1999). Furthermore, no attempts to conserving the breed or evaluating its performance as a layer have been made. The main objectives of this report are to give an update on the progress in setting up an in-situ breeding programme for the Black Maltese, and to give some preliminary indication of the performance potential of this population of chickens raised under a small-scale intensive system.

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Sponsors to finance the project and volunteers to partake in various activities necessary to purchase and establish a breeding nucleus of Black Maltese were recruited in August 1998, and the available Black Maltese stock was initially examined in the same month. It was decided to raise the birds as Áfamily poultry«, i.e. in a home-backyard environment by volunteers (local women), having (or who were provided with) basic knowledge on poultry breeding and rearing. Several orientation sessions on poultry raising and breeding poultry, including some opportunities for Áhands-on« experience, were provided by the author of this paper at the beginning of the study. All facts considered, a small-scale intensive system was considered to be the most appropriate form of management for this project.

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The site chosen for housing the stock, pen layout and construction materials were chosen to replicate those of other small-scale intensive poultry systems in Malta, as this would favour the extrapolation of results. A stone shed in a village garden was modified by the construction of wood and wire roofed pens, allowing for the separation of three different sub-populations of Black Maltese, called Line 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Therefore a "line" consisted of a group of chickens that were known to be closely related.

The flooring was of cement, and covered in sawdust from local carpenter shops, and particular care was taken to make the shed as vermin-proof as possible from rodents and the Spanish sparrow (Passer hispaniolensis). Seven birds from each line (one male and six females) were purchased, for a total of 21 specimens. Only birds from the same line were placed in the same pen, therefore three separate pens, present in the same stone shed, housed the breeding stock. Females within the same pen were tagged with rings of different colours for easy identification. Most specimens had almost completed their moult at time of purchase in August 1998. Vegetable crates were placed for use as nest boxes, and reeds (Arundo donax) were attached across the pens to serve as perches for roosting.

Partitions had to be placed between pens as the males were unfamiliar (coming from three different localities) and would spend an inordinate amount of time fighting through the wire, rendering all the birds nervous; partitions were removed after three months. They were fed on locally produced layer mash, and supplemented with greens (mainly Oxalis pes-caprae), and fruit and vegetable scraps. A supplementary source of calcium for the hens was (inadvertently) supplied as whitewash (lime) on the pen walls.

The poultry was given a light feed once daily for the first three weeks (August 1998), then fed twice daily as the photoperiod was increased by 15 minutes daily until a total of 13 hours of light daily were supplied to stimulate ovarian activity and lay. Natural lighting in the shed was kept deliberately dim, and light was supplied by the addition of a neon tube and an attached timer-switch with variable settings. Additional light was supplied as after moulting, the Black Maltese (and chickens in general in Malta raised as family poultry) do not commence laying eggs until February-March due to the progressive shortening of the photoperiod in autumn in this region.

Eggs were collected daily, and clean, unblemished eggs were stored pointing down in a cool (16 oC), dry place for subsequent incubation. Eggs laid in the previous seven days were set in a home model incubator (Covatutto 20, Novital S.R.L. Lonate Pozzolo, VA, Italy) in an ambient temperature of 18-20 oC. Incubators were used as space did not permit the keeping of bantams, traditionally used to hatch Black Maltese (Mallia, 1999). The eggs were rotated twice daily at 12-h intervals for the first 18 days of incubation. On hatching, chicks were immediately placed in carton boxes with two 15W red light bulbs as a heat / light source, present 24 h daily.

Feed was presented within 12 h of hatch in the form of an egg-rich mash that included honey and apple (Encia Pate, NE. IT S.p.A., Milano, Italy), and water was supplied within 24 h of hatch. The chicks were also ringed for identification purposes. As chicks were hatching in the colder months of the year (daily maximum 15-18 oC, nightly minimum 8-12 oC), heat was supplied for the first three weeks of life. They were fed commercially available Áchick crumbs«. Young birds, grouped by age in various pens, were subsequently housed with the breeding adults and fed grower pellets. Dead birds were collected by participating volunteers and frozen for subsequent examination by the author.

Computerised records and statistics related to the eggs laid in the various pens, various crosses performed, ID of eggs set, hatching records, chick pedigrees and characteristics were performed on a spreadsheet (Quattro Pro, Version 5.0, Scotts Valley, CA, USA).

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Adult characteristics
Variation within a genetic line was negligible, whereas some phenotypic differences were evident among the three lines. Recessive genes described in the breed standard (Mallia, 1999) were present in all specimens of all three lines: single comb, lack of side sprigs in comb, lack of barring of plumage, non-feathered shanks, non-broodiness and fast-feathering of chicks. Body stature and head and tail characteristics, carriage, presence of prominent strong legs and active behaviour were consistent with the breed description in all three lines.

The breed standard ascribes white skin to this breed. This dominant trait was present in all specimens of line three, but only 50 % of line 1 and 50% of line 2 had white skin and slate legs. The remainder had yellowish skins and some yellow leg scales (recessive traits). The breed standard (Mallia, 1999) also does not mention the presence of red in the hackle. However, all three males had 1-3 red hackle feathers; this Áwild-type« trait is probably dominant, and is probably masked because these feathers are removed by owners to give an even black appearance to the specimen.

The roosters were very protective of the hens in their respective harems, but also sounded a series of Áalarm clucks« if other poultry in other pens were perceived to be threatened. In line with their rustic status, the roosters are fairly territorial and very intolerant of the presence of cats and dogs. In the presence of these potential predators, the male gathers his harem and the poultry run or fly to safety. All birds actively scratched in the litter and routinely roosted several feet above the ground at night. A despot (hen), second in dominance only to the rooster, was present in each pen. The hens in a pen were hostile to any subsequent addition of new hens.

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Moulting, commencement of lay and hatch
Moulting commenced around late June 1998, and was virtually complete by the end of August. Hens were kept on very low feeding levels and with low light intensity levels in August to ensure a more rapid and complete moult.

Transportation stress coupled with being placed in a new environment were other factors that contributed to a rapid and complete moult. The order of the moult pattern did not vary from that of standard poultry breeds and varieties: moulting commenced with the head, followed by the neck, breast, back, fluff, abdomen, wings and tail. The birds were agile and capable of flight at all times during the moult. The sickle feathers in the males took 4-5 months for complete growth. The supplementation of light and increased quantity of feed successfully resulted in all hens being in lay by the third week of October. Hens immediately used the wooden vegetable crates for lay, and Black Maltese roosters routinely entered the nest boxes, clucking and crouching, and simulating a laying hen.

This behaviour encouraged the hens to enter the nest boxes and lay their eggs there, and all eggs (100%) were laid inside the boxes on clean sawdust. This resulted in none (0%) of the eggs being consumed by the hens or predators. Egg colour, shape and volume varied in the three genetic lines. Line 1 had eggs that were very pale tint, with a regular shape and small, with an average [standard error, SE] volume of 42.27 [0.59]cc; line 2 produced eggs that were white, round and large, with an average volume of 57.27 [0.7]cc; line 3 produced eggs that were white and pointed, with a volume of 45.87 [0.35]cc. There was no significant difference (P = 0.05) among the number of eggs laid in December 1998, January 1999 and February 1999 for all three genetic lines. However, there was a significant difference ((P = 0.05) among the egg-laying potentials of the three genetic lines: line 3 clearly laid considerably less (monthly average [SE] = 17.11 [0.14] eggs), than the other two lines (monthly average [SE] line 1 = 26.94 [0.18] eggs; line 2 = 26.89 [0.24] eggs). The hatch results for various line crosses are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1: Black Maltese hatch summary

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The overall percentage of dead in shell (DIS) was very high (>40%), and the percentage of clear eggs was suitably low (<5%). Most DIS chicks (>95%) were completely formed despite their failure to hatch. Overall hatchability was found to be 55.5 %, and chick survivability was 100% (Table 1).

Chick characteristics
The chicks were very fast-feathering and precocious, showing a rapid ability to eat, imprint and move around freely. They were very independent, with a curious, alert nature, and would scratch around in the litter for feed and roost at a few days of age. The very rapid development of the wing weathers (within the first week of age), and long, strong legs were particularly evident; these are excellent characteristics for poultry that may be raised under free-range conditions and are allowed to forage for feed. The rapidity of feathering and other characteristics are summarized in Table 2. It is to be noted that, because of the absence of a foster mother and the prevailing low ambient temperatures (day 15-18oC, night 8-12 oC), the chicks needed supplementary heat for the first 3 weeks of life.

Table 2: Black Maltese chick feathering sequence

Disease
In Malta, smallholder backyard or semi-intensive family poultry flocks of (mainly) Rhode Island Red and White Leghorns have a high prevalence of IB, ILT, pox, coccidiosis and infectious coryza, amongst others. An adequate vaccination programme and anticoccidial regimen is usually absent. The adult stock purchased had a high prevalence of cutaneous (dry) pox (60%), all in the final crust or scab stage on the comb only. The breeding stock was very vigorous and had no other apparent conditions. Caecal coccidiosis due to Eimeria tenella was evident in all pens with chicks of two months or less in age, and morbidity approached 100%. Although coccidiosis due to E. tenella is said to be characterized by high morbidity and mortality, with death occurring often without previous symptoms (Asdrubali, 1986), early symptoms were discernible for over a week in the Black Maltese chicks: birds were huddled and depressed, and when roosting, rump feathers were fluffed. They moved close to a heat source if one is offered, and the chicks chirped continuously. The litter was constantly very wet, although very few solid faecal droppings, if any, were present. Routine treatment at this early and easily discernible Áwet litter« stage of disease with a coccidiostat and change of litter resulted in a low incidence of mortality (3 %).

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Purchase of stock, housing, feeding and general management
A small-scale intensive system was considered to be the only pragmatic way of raising this breed, being a form of management that was compatible with the type of housing available. It also allowed the best control over the stock. Theft, accidental death (motorcars) and predation were major concerns. Furthermore, raising the flock under this system allowed for better control of disease: free-ranging and unconfined type of management render disease control difficult and expensive (Aini, 1990).

The small-scale intensive system also allows for the greatest number of eggs/hen/year to be collected (Sonaiya et al., 1999), a priority for this project that aimed at saving and evaluating a critically endangered poultry breed. Feed accounts for over 60% of total production costs in the commercial poultry sector (Renkema, 1992), including the small-scale intensive system we chose. This cost was felt to be warranted considering the cost of purchase of the breeding stock and the sense of urgency to rapidly establish a sizeable flock.

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Adult characteristics
Although the Black Maltese appears as a very homogenous group of poultry, some degree of genetic variation is still evidently present. Genetic variation may be advantageous in a population of poultry that are raised under highly variable conditions such as those encountered in a free-range or backyard system, and to some extent in a small-scale intensive system without a precise protocol.

The phenotypic variability was evidenced by the presence of Black Maltese with yellowish skins and yellow feet scales. This breed was mainly kept for egg production. Therefore the appearance of skin colour in the plucked carcass was of little concern. It is to be noted that Mediterranean breeds such as the Minorca, Castillian and Andalusian have exclusively white skin and slate coloured legs. Yellow skin colour with yellow leg colour as well as yellow and black mottled legs is typical of Leghorns and the Ancona, respectively. However, the population of relatively unselected Black Maltese has mainly slate legs and white skin (dominant traits), but individuals with yellowish skin and legs (recessive) are also still present. Selection pressure from the relatively unselected poultry population formerly present in many Mediterranean countries to form a well-defined breed may have originated contemporary breeds such as the Minorca and Ancona.

The presence of a few red feathers in the hackle is another indication of the relatively unselected and rustic status of the Black Maltese. All breed standards (e.g. Minorca, Ancona, Andalusian) strongly discriminate against specimens carrying the original Áwild-type« genes for red in the hackle, and this gene(s) has been removed from these highly selected breeds. There is minimal variability in egg colour in the Black Maltese (white to very pale tint), but more so in egg shape and volume (size). Hens laying smaller eggs may have been retained because they possibly lay more eggs or have a greater hatchability. We were not able to analyse this statistically due to the small sample size of hens available and confounding due to variables such as power cuts during incubation, inconsistent heat and humidity. The number of eggs laid was impressive for lines 1 and 2, especially as this was during months with a short photoperiod when lay was at its lowest, but also when egg prices were at a premium.

Clearly, the Black Maltese shows substantially more variation than other contemporary Mediterranean breeds. However, genetic variability may be a useful advantage for raising this breed under certain non-industrial management systems; this is especially so if it is to be utilized in a wider range of countries, particularly those with a hot, dry climate and where family poultry plays an important role.

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Moulting, commencement of lay and hatch
Black Maltese hens can easily be induced to lay by the supplementation of light. They can also be easily trained to use crates for lay, for cleaner eggs, less breakage and easy location in free-range system. The roosters also play a role in this, as they routinely encourage the hens to enter nest boxes and lay. Although the sickle feathers in the males took several months for complete growth, it evidently did not interfere with fertility.

The percentage of dead in shell (DIS) was very high (> 40%), however it is probably due to errors (inconsistent heat and humidity) and limitations of our system of incubation, rather than to intrinsic characteristics of the breeding stock. Indeed, most DIS chicks (> 95%) were completely formed despite their failure to hatch. Statistical inference was not conducted on the DIS statistics as other variables, such as presence or absence of a power cut during incubation prohibit the interpretation of the DIS chicks. A multivariate approach of data analysis would be appropriate, but the small data set did not permit this approach.

The overall hatchability using artificial incubation was rather poor (55.45 %), even lower than those reported by Sonaiya et al. (1999) for free-range / backyard chickens (60-70%). Clearly, incubation alternative would have greatly benefited the Black Maltese project. If raised for commercial purposes in rural areas, sitting (Asian) breeds and their crosses could be used in a family poultry scenario to incubate the eggs. The non-sitting Black Maltese was formerly raised in conjunction with other rustic, sitting poultry. The latter types of hens incubated Black Maltese eggs, allowing the advantage of these non-sitting hens - high egg production - to be fully utilized.

The range of eggs laid under a small-scale intensive is usually of 80 - 150 eggs/hen/year (Sonaiya et al., 1999). The Black Maltese appears to be able to equal and exceed this range with supplementary lighting in northern latitudes, but possibly even without, if raised in the tropics where seasonal differences in the photoperiod are less marked, and winters have more natural hours of daylight. The high egg-laying potential is a strong point of interest of this breed for possible use to stock family poultry units in hot climates.

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Chick characteristics
The fast-feathering properties of the chicks were also of particular interest, as they differed in order and time of appearance than those described for commercial lines (North and Bell, 1990). The wing feathers develop very rapidly, helping the young chick to run / flutter rapidly and roost at a week of age. Black Maltese chicks, except for the head, are fully feathered at 30 days. The chicks of this breed are also very precocious, and readily eat within the first day of life. Being dark and having a marked tendency to roost from a very young age, night predation from rats is minimized.

As artificial incubation was used, this study did not shed any light on chick survivability in a free-range system with a foster mother (Black Maltese hens not being broody). However, this study has shown that if chicks are given particular care in the first three weeks of life the survivability can be extremely high (100%). This is of particular interest as mortality rates for chicks raised under free-range systems are often very high. Thus, this alternative way of raising young chicks under family poultry management systems may therefore be considered when some extra resources are present. It must also be emphasized that the setting of eggs and the hatch were supervised by local women (volunteers) that did not have any particular training, save basic training at the start of the project and a written protocol as a guideline. The volunteers considered the extra resources necessary outlined in this project as very worthwhile due to the excellent chick survival rate.

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Disease
Under the present system, this flock had no direct contact with other poultry, and volunteers avoided contact with other poultry. Nonetheless, the breeding adults were carriers for pox and E. tenella. Coccidiosis could be ideally minimized by treating breeding adults when purchased, and housing chickens of different ages in different sheds; the latter was not practical in this project, and would be even less so under Áregular« family poultry conditions where space is usually at a premium. It was evident that even a rustic breed such as the Black Maltese was susceptible (high morbidity) to caecal coccidiosis under a small-scale intensive system.

This is in accordance with the observations of Sani et al. (1987) who noted that when chickens are confined, coccidiosis needed to be controlled. The low mortality due to caecal coccidiosis may warrant a field trial to examine whether this breed is actually more resistant to E. tenella, or whether we were merely repeatedly fortunate in being able to diagnose the condition very early in its course. Of interest was the apparent lack of ill direct effects of the cutaneous form of pox and of accompanying secondary bacteria infection on the adults, or of the young housed in adjacent pens. A long-term strategy for in-situ conservation of the Black Maltese will have to assess and implement a vaccination programme for the breeding stock. Currently, the entire flock rests unvaccinated; therefore the stock remains vulnerable to notorious epidemics such as Newcastle Disease, present (only) in the pigeon populations of Malta.

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The best long-term strategy for ex-situ conservation may best be achieved by the involvement of the Agricultural Research and Development Centre (Ghammieri, Malta) in maintaining a breeding flock. The institute enjoys a large premise with several large pens, and is very well staffed.

The present paper represents the first six months of an in-situ conservation project aimed at maintaining a breeding flock and assessing the performance of this breed. Despite the cautious success of the project so far (over 400 chickens raised in 5 months under a slightly modified family poultry management system, there are valid concerns over its long-term sustainability. The major concern lies in that funding depends on sponsors that only have a short-term involvement. Likewise, the persons involved are all on a voluntary basis. Most of the chickens have had to be released at a cost-recovery price as maintaining funds for their keep, and an adequately large site for housing, were not available.

Therefore whereas the short-term picture of the in-situ conservation project for the Black Maltese is one of relative success, it is only national and international involvement that will assure its survival and maximize its potential use as an efficient layer under a family poultry management system. As stated in the introductory paper of this conference (Sonaiya et al., 1999), it is very encouraging to note the Food and Agriculture Organization's strong commitment to family poultry development.

The formation of the International Network on Family Poultry Development (INFPD), a non-governmental organization with strong backing from the FAO, should also go a long way in preserving and utilizing poultry genetic resources suitable for family poultry management systems. The Black Maltese appears to be rustic, prolific and a good layer of eggs. It may therefore be a suitable candidate for preservation, multiplication and stocking of family poultry units in xyrothermic tropical and subtropical conditions such as North Africa, the Sahel and Middle East. FAO / INFPD, together with the Agricultural Research and Development Centre (Ghammieri, Malta) now have an opportunity of further assessing the breed, and if deemed suitable will have a newly- available poultry genetic resource for introduction to family poultry projects worldwide.

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