APPENDIX 2
INDEX OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF PLANTS AND FISH (contd.)

APPENDIX 3

DESCRIPTIONS OF SELECTED PROCESSED FOODS INCLUDED IN THE TABLES

AISH MERAHRA, MAIZE AND FENUGREEK BREAD

Aish merahra (aish merahrah), a maize and fenugreek bread widely consumed in Egypt, is usually prepared locally in village homes. It is similar to markouk, a Lebanese bread. The loaves are flat and wide, about 50 cm in diameter.

A soft dough is prepared from maize flour, fenugreek seeds, salt and water. The dough rises overnight using some of the dough from a previous batch. The dough is shaped into loaves of about 25 cm in diameter by 5 mm thick. It is then spun to full size by an intricate motion of both arms.

The loaves are baked in a clay oven heated by wood fire. This bread does not stale easily and can be stored 1 to 2 weeks in covered metal containers.

AKKAWI CHEESE

Akkawi is a medium-hard cheese made from sheep's or cow's milk. The milk is inoculated with commercial rennet at the rate of 2.5 g per 100 kg milk. The resulting cheese is formed into 10 cm by 10 cm blocks and stored in 13 percent salted whey.

AMRATI (SWEET)

Mung bean flour and water are combined to form a batter. Sometimes saffron is added as a seasoning.

Bangle-like rings are formed and dropped into hot ghee by putting the batter in a pot with a hole in the bottom. After frying, the rings are soaked in heavy sugar syrup.

ANDRASA (SWEET)

A thick syrup is prepared from the sugar and water, to which rice flour is added gradually, then stirred and cooked until almost dry. The mixture is covered with a towel and allowed to stand for 24 hours. After kneading the dough, thin cakes of about 10 cm in diameter are formed, then fried in ghee. Andrasa is eaten cold.

ARAB CHEESE

Arab cheese is a term used in Iraq to identify a semisoft white cheese, prepared from goat's or sheep's milk. It is similar to Lebanese baladi cheese and mountain cheese.

The milk is coagulated with rennet and the curd is shaped into balls of about 10 cm in diameter. The cheese balls are then stored in salted whey. This type of cheese is eaten fresh.

ARABIC BREAD, WHITE

Arabic bread is usually prepared in commercial bakeries. The loaves are round and flat, about 25 cm in diameter and 5 to 8 mm thick. During baking, which takes only 1 to 2 minutes, the bread seprates into two layers. The bread is often used for sandwiches by placing the filling between these layers. The bread is soft and has little crust, since the surface is just lightly browned.

ARISHE CHEESE

Whey, resulting from the cutting and pressing of halloum cheese (prepared from sheep's milk), is boiled for a few minutes. Cottage cheese-like particles are collected and strained in colanders. Arishe is either eaten with honey and jam for dessert or salted as cheese.

BALADI BREAD

Baladi bread is sometimes prepared from whole wheat flour containing extra bran, and sometimes from high extraction flour. It is like Arabic bread, having two layers, but baladi bread loaves are smaller in diameter.

In Egypt the baladi bread is either whole wheat bread or white bread to which some ground fenugreek seeds are added. Baladi bread is prepared locally in the villages and also in commercial bakeries.

BALADI CHEESE

Goat's or sheep's milk is used to make this white, semisoft cheese. The milk is heated, coagulated with rennet, cut into cubes and shaped by hand into balls of about 10 cm in diameter, which are then stored in salted whey.

BALUSHAHI (SWEET)

A dough of flour, baking powder, yogurt and water is prepared and kneaded. Then ghee or oil is added, mixed thoroughly and rolled into flattened balls. They are fried in ghee, then soaked in heavy sugar syrup.

BARBARI BREAD

Barbari is an oval bread about 70 to 80 cm long, 20 to 30 cm wide and 3.5 cm thick.

The dough is prepared from the above ingredients and flattened into an oval shape. Then a concentrated mixture of flour and water is poured on the surface to make it shiny and brown after baking. Fingers are run deeply along the surface to score it. The bread is baked in an oven made of fire-resistant bricks.

BARFI (MILK PRODUCT)

1000 g highly condensed milk 500 g sugar

Milk is cooked with sugar, stirring constantly, until the mixture is almost dry. It is spread in a tray, cooled and cut into rhomboid-shaped pieces.

BARFI (SWEET)

Syrup is prepared from the sugar and water. Flour and milk are added to the warm syrup and cooked while stirring until almost dry. The mixture is spread in a tray, cooled and cut into rhomboid-shaped pieces.

BARLEY BREAD (MALVJ)

Barley bread is made by mixing the above ingredients to form a dough. It is allowed to rise until almost double in bulk. Small balls of dough are shaped into 15 cm round loaves. They are covered, allowed to rise for 20 minutes, then baked in a frying pan for 1 to 2 minutes on each side. Barley bread is eaten warm.

BASTERMA

Basterma is a variety of dried, salted and spiced meat product prepared from beef (rarely, mutton, goat, buffalo or camel meat is used). The meat is cut into bands of about 30 cm by 12 cm by 4 cm and is cured in a wooden container with a mixture of salt and sodium nitrate for 36 hours. It is then washed and dried in the sun for 48 hours.

The dried meat is marinated in a paste made from ground fenugreek seeds, garlic, red pepper and red food coloring, then sun-dried for an additional 48 hours.

Basterma is sliced in the direction of the muscle and eaten as it is or fried with eggs.

BEEDANA (SWEET)

The flour and dough are mixed and enough water added to make a thick dough. Small balls of about 1.5 cm in diameter are formed, fried in ghee and then soaked in sugar syrup.

BELILA

Belila is a wheat preparation usually served warm at breakfast, sometimes sprinkled with nuts.

It is prepared by soaking wheat for 2 days and then boiling it until tender. Starch and milk are added and boiled for 10 minutes. Sugar is added and the mixture is cooked for 2 more minutes before it is eaten.

BISARA

Bisara is a stewed broadbean paste. For its preparation, decorticated broadbeans are soaked overnight in water, drained and boiled in fresh water until tender. The beans are mashed to make a puree, seasoned with Jew's mallow, mint, garlic, cumin seeds and coriander seeds, then simmered gently for 5 minutes.

For serving, bisara is poured into individual plates and decorated with fried onion slices.

BOMBAY PERRAY

Milk and sugar are stirred and cooked together until almost dry. The mixture is cooled, then nuts are added. Small balls of about 2.5 cm in diameter are formed. Bombay perray are eaten cold.

BOUZA

Bouza is an Egyptian and Arabic beverage resembling beer made from fermented wheat or millet.

It is prepared in Egypt by coarsely grinding wheat grains and mixing them with water to form a dough. The dough is cut into thick loaves and baked very lightly.

Other wheat grains (about one-quarter of the total amount of wheat used to prepare the bouza) are moistened with water and allowed to germinate for 3 to 5 days. They are sun-dried, coarsely ground and then mixed with the loaves. The loaves are placed in a wooden barrel filled with water. Some bouza from a previous brewing is added as a starter and the mixture is left to ferment for 24 hours at room temperature. The bouza is strained and the liquor is adjusted to the required dilution with water. It is ready to be consumed at the end of this process (24-hour bouza).

BURGHUL (BURGHOL)

Burghul is usually prepared from varieties of hard wheat.

Whole wheat grain is boiled in open kettles until tender, from 2 to 4 hours. The boiled grain is spread in the sun to dry. The dry grains are sprinkled with water and scrubbed to help remove the bran. The dried grains are then ground and sifted to separate the particles into different sizes. The bran is removed by exposing the grains to a draft of air.

CACIOCAVALLO CHEESE

Caciocavallo cheese is commonly known as “baikan” or “romy” cheese. It is one of the most popular hard cheese varieties consumed in Egypt. It is usually prepared from cow's milk, but sometimes from a mixture of cow's and ewe's milk. Skimmed evening milk and whole morning milk are mixed, pasteurized, cooled and inoculated with rennet. The resulting curd is cut into small pieces. The whey is removed and heated to 53 degrees C and then returned to the curd, maintaining the temperature at 53 degrees C for 4 to 10 hours. The rope-like pieces are formed, which are finally molded into the characteristic Caciocavallo shape, brined for 3 to 4 days, drained and suspended in pairs at 16 to 17 degrees C. The cheese is cleaned when mold forms on the surface and oiled regularly. It is ripened for 2 to 4 months for table use or 6 to 12 months for grating.

CHAPATI BREAD

A thick dough is prepared from cereal grain or legume flour, kneaded, covered with a damp cloth and then allowed to rise for 2 to 3 hours. Pieces of dough the size of an egg are taken, four balls are formed and rolled into thin loaves of 15 to 20 cm in diameter. These loaves are then baked on a hot iron until brown spots appear. The loaves are in one layer; they do not separate into two layers like Arabic bread. Chapati is eaten hot, preferably soon after baking.

DHAL GRAM, PREPARED WITH OIL

Chickpeas are soaked in water overnight. Then they are drained, fried in hot oil and salted. Dhal gram is usually eaten at breakfast or as a snack food.

Dhal gram is also prepared as a main dish by adding fried onions, spices and water to the fried chickpeas.

DHAL MOOTH, PREPARED WITH GHEE

Mothbeans are soaked in water overnight. Then they are drained, fried in ghee and salted.

DHAL MUNG, PREPARED WITH GHEE

Decorticated mungo beans are soaked in water overnight. Then they are drained, fried in ghee and salted.

DOMIATI CHEESE

Domiati, a so-called pickled cheese, is one of the most popular Egyptian cheeses. It is a soft, white variety made from whole or partly skimmed cow's or buffalo's milk. A distinguishing characteristic is that salt is added at the beginning of the cheese making process rather than at the end.

It is prepared by heating one-third of the milk to 80 degrees C and adding 5 to 15 percent salt to the remaining milk. The two portions are mixed, then rennet and starter are added. After a coagulation period of 2 to 3 hours, the curd is put into molds lined with coarse cloth. The cheese is then wrapped in wax paper if it is to be marketed fresh. If it is to be ripened, it is pickled in salty whey or milk for 4 to 8 months, then packed in cans for sale.

DOUG (AYRAN)

Doug is defatted yogurt mixed with water and salt.

FINO OR FRENCH BREAD

Fino or French bread loaves are about 30 to 35 cm in length, 5 to 6 cm in diameter, with a crisp crust and soft white crumb.

Dough is prepared from the above ingredients. It is allowed to rise, is kneaded and then rises a second time. The dough is shaped into long loaves, covered and allowed to rise, then slashed with three lengthwise cuts on the surface of the loaves. During baking, the loaves are sprayed several times with water to produce a crisp, well-browned crust.

GAIMAR FLOTATION CREAM

Gaimar flotation cream is a dairy product widely consumed in Iraq, which is similar to Lebanese kashta.

It is prepared from buffalo's milk by boiling the milk for a few minutes. The hot milk is covered with blankets for about 4 hours, then uncovered and allowed to cool overnight. The thick kashta layer is removed with a strainer and is folded with the wet surfaces inside. It is usually sold fresh in the morning and is eaten at breakfast with honey or jam.

GAIMAR MILK

Gaimar milk is the buffalo's milk which remains after the production of gaimar flotation cream. Therefore, the milk is much lower in fat content than whole buffalo's milk.

GAZ (SWEET)

Gaz is an Iranian sweet, similar to nougat, made from manna and, usually, pistachio nuts or almonds. Manna is the sweetish, dried exudate of the European flowering ash or related plant that contains mannitol as it chief constituent.

Gaz is prepared by, first, boiling 4 parts manna with 1 part water and filtering the resulting solution. Separately, 4 parts sugar is mixed with 1 part water and an egg white, then boiled until the mixture becomes viscous. The manna solution is added to this mixture, which is then heated and stirred until it becomes thick. Beaten egg whites are gradually added as the mixture slowly cooks. Nuts are added. The final product is spread in a tray, sprinkled with flour, and cut into desired shapes.

GHANDY SWEET BREAD

Ghandy is a sweet bread formed in round loaves of about 40 to 50 cm in diameter. This bread is prepared from a high extraction wheat flour, sugar and butter. It is baked on the surface of a spherical oven.

GHARAHGHORUT

Gharahghorut is a black, hard, waxy substance with a sour flavor. It is prepared by mixing kashk (dried, defatted yogurt) with water and boiling until it becomes black and syrupy. The mass is sun-dried and stored for later use. Gharahghorut is used in the preparation of some Iranian dishes.

GHEE

Ghee is semifluid butter that is obtained by heating butterfat until all the water evaporates and the remaining curd is slightly scorched. Ghee's characteristic flavor is produced during this process.

GULAB JAMAN

The above ingredients are mixed and formed into small balls, fried in ghee and soaked in warm, thick sugar syrup.

HABBIYAH

Habbiyah is parboiled wheat. This product is used in many dishes prepared in Iraq, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan.

The wheat grains are sorted, soaked in water to soften the seed coat, then pounded to remove the seed coat. Soaking facilitates the removal of the seed coat and also reduces the breakage of the grains during dehulling. The grains are separated from the hulls, boiled, then sun-dried and stored for consumption.

HALWA GAJAR (SWEET)

Carrots are boiled and mashed, sugar is added and the mixture is cooked until almost dry. Ghee is added to the carrot mixture and roasted. Milk is added, heated thoroughly, then served warm.

HALWA SOHAN (SWEET)

Syrup is prepared from the sugar and 1250 g water.

The wheat starch is mixed with 750 g water, added to the syrup and cooked until almost dry. Ghee is added one spoonful at a time. The mixture is spread in a tray, cooled, then cut into different shapes.

HALWA SUJI (SWEET)

Syrup is prepared from the sugar and water. Semolina is roasted in ghee until pink. The syrup is added to the ghee mixture and cooked until almost dry. The mixture is spread in a pan and decorated with nuts if desired.

HALWA WITH PISTACHIO (SWEET)

Wheat flour and ground sesame seeds are roasted in sesame oil. Sugar and water are added to the flour mixture and cooked until almost dry. Halwa is garnished with pistachio nuts before serving.

HALWA (WITH TEHINEH - SWEET)

Sugar and saponaria root extract are combined and beaten while heating until the mixture becomes white. The saponaria root extract acts as an emulsifier. Tehineh is added and beating is continued until the mixture becomes semi-solid. The mixture is spread in a pan, cooled and cut.

HAMBURGER BREAD

Hamburger rolls are small round rolls of about 15 cm in diameter and are baked locally.

Dough is prepared from the above ingredients and allowed to rise twice. It is shaped into balls, placed on a baking sheet, covered with a towel, allowed to rise and baked at 250 degrees C for 20 minutes. During baking, the surface is sprayed several times with water to produce an evenly browned crust.

JALEBI (SWEET)

Low extraction wheat flour, sodium bicarbonate, yellow food coloring and water are mixed to form a thin batter. For frying, the batter is poured into hot ghee or oil using a pot with a hole in the bottom to form overlapping rings. The jalebi are soaked while hot in light sugar syrup.

JOWZEGHAND (SWEET)

Jowzeghand is prepared by stuffing dried figs with ground nuts mixed with sugar. The figs are then sprinkled generously with powdered sugar.

KA'AK BREAD

Ka'ak is a special ring-shaped bread with a surface covering of sesame seeds. The ring is hollow and about half the ring is of a larger diameter than the other half. The leavening agent is fermented chickpeas. The bread is eaten as a snack and is flavored with salt, zaatar (powdered thyme) and sumac just before eating. It is widely sold by street vendors.

KALAKAND

Milk is cooked with sugar and stirred until the mixture is almost dry. It is cooled and cardamom seeds may be added if desired. The mixture is then spread in a tray, cooled and cut into cubes.

KAREISH CHEESE

Kareish is one of the so-called pickled cheeses made in Egypt. Skimmed buffalo's or cow's milk is used. It is produced like domiati cheese except that salt is added to the curd, not to the milk. The cheese is then cured in earthenware containers filled with a brine solution.

KASHK (KITTE, JAMEED, CHORTAN)

Kashk is prepared by drying defatted yogurt prepared from sheep's milk. The concentrated yogurt is hung in cloth sacks, dried for 2 to 4 weeks, then stored for consumption.

KASHTA

Kashta is a relatively protein-rich dairy product produced and consumed primarily in Lebanon. It is prepared by mixing fresh, raw cow's milk with reconstituted powdered milk in proportions not exceeding 66.6 percent of reconstituted milk powder to raw milk.

The mixed milk is poured into wide, round, shallow trays. A white, elastic, membrane-like crust forms over the milk layer as heating continues. This layer is allowed to thicken before it is drawn to the back of the tray after several layers are formed. The kashta is collected by circular colanders and drained. It is then sent to sweet and pastry shops where it is used in many sweet recipes.

KATLAMA ARABIAN

Dough is prepared from low extraction wheat flour. Small balls are shaped and rolled thin to a diameter of about 15 cm.

A filling is prepared from boiled minced meat, salt, chillies, eggs, condensed milk and jam. A spoonful of the filling is placed on each round of pastry, folded in half to form a half moon shape and fried in ghee. Katlama Arabian is eaten warm.

KATLAMA MINCED MEAT

Dough is prepared from low extraction wheat flour and rolled on a wooden plank. It is then cut into round, thin pieces.

A filling is prepared from boiled minced meat, salt, chillies and ground mung beans. A spoonful of the filling is placed on each round of pastry, folded to form a half moon and fried in ghee. Katlama minced meat is eaten warm.

KHAJUR (SWEET)

A thick dough is prepared from the flour, sugar, ghee and water. This mixture is kneaded thoroughly, then the dough is allowed to rest for 5 minutes. Balls of 2.5 cm in diameter are formed into oval shapes and fried in ghee.

KHIKKI CHEESE

Khikki is one of the major cheese types produced in the Gillan district of Iran. The name refers to a sack made of a whole sheep or goat, which is used as a container to store the cheese. This is a soft, white cheese and its method of preparation has passed from generation to generation through the years.

KISHK (WITH BURGHUL)

In Egypt, Jordan and Syria, kishk is a mixture of approximately 1 part burghul and 4 parts yogurt. In Iraq this product is called kushuk.

The burghul is soaked in an earthenware basin (maajan) overnight with yogurt prepared from goat's milk. It is salted and passed through a meat mincer, then kept covered for 7 to 8 days. Every day the kishk is kneaded and some yogurt is added to it. Then the product is placed in small pieces on trays and sun-dried. After drying, it is ground into a powder.

KISRA BREAD

Kisra is prepared by mixing flour, starter and enough water to form a paste in an earthenware container and allowed to stand overnight. The dough is thinned to the consistency of a batter. A thin layer of batter is spread with a spatula on a hot iron plate and baked for about 30 seconds. The thin cakes are removed from the plate, stacked on a tray and covered. Kisra is eaten with vegetables, legumes or a meat stew.

KURDISH CHEESE

Kurdish is a soft, ripened cheese widely consumed in Iraq, usually prepared in Northern Iraq.

Kurdish cheese is made from sheep's milk. Half of the milk is coagulated with rennet; the other half is coagulated with salt and citric acid. The two curds are strained and mixed together. Finely chopped, fresh, green garlic leaves are added, the mixture is salted, put into a sack made of a whole sheep or goat and hung to ripen for 2 to 3 months.

LABNE (LABNEH)

Labne is a very popular dairy food eaten as an hors d'oeuvre, as a spread on bread with olive oil or as a meal by itself.

Labne is prepared from laban (yogurt) by filtering it through cloth bags or linen cloth to drain the whey. It is left in the bag until the consistency is similar to whipped or sour cream. It is then salted and transferred to plastic containers and refrigerated.

LADU (SWEET)

Dough is prepared from chickpea flour and water. Small balls of about 3 cm in diameter are formed, fried in ghee or oil, then soaked in sugar syrup. Pistachio nuts may be sprinkled on ladu before eating if desired.

LAVASH BREAD

Lavash is a paper-thin bread, oval in shape, about 70 cm by 30 cm. This type of bread is very popular among the tribesmen and shepherds in Iran.

Dough is prepared from the above ingredients and allowed to rise for several hours. The dough is then rolled to the proper thickness. The rolled dough is put on a cushion and stuck to the walls of a barrel-shaped clay oven with the opening at floor level. It is baked for 25 to 30 seconds. Depending upon the season and the humidity, lavash can be stored from 3 to 6 months.

LEEGVAN CHEESE

Leegvan is a semisoft, fermented, white Iranian cheese. It is prepared from sheep's milk or sometimes from a mixture of sheep's and goat's milk.

LUCHI (SWEET)

Dough from low extraction wheat flour, ghee and water is prepared and kneaded. The balls are formed and rolled into large, thin, circular disks. These are fried in ghee and eaten with jam.

LUX BREAD

Lux bread is Arabic bread prepared from a very low extraction wheat flour, therefore the bread is much whiter than the ordinary Arabix bread sold on the market.

MAIZE, WHEAT AND FENUGREEK BREAD

This bread, called aish-el-fayesh in Egypt, is prepared in the villages and eaten at breakfast with milk or tea.

A soft dough is prepared from the above ingredients. Loaves of about 20 to 25 cm in diameter and 5 cm thick are made and baked. The loaves are then sliced and toasted in a warm oven.

MANAKEESH BREAD

Manakeesh is a bread product widely consumed in Lebanon, usually eaten warm at breakfast.

Arabic bread dough is generously covered with a mixture of thyme, olive oil, salt, sesame seeds and sumac. The fingers are worked deeply into the dough to prevent the separation of the dougu into two layers.

MARKOUK OR MOUNTAIN BREAD

Markouk (mountain bread) is a large round (60 cm i diameter), thin (1.5 to 2 mm) loaf with extensive areas of charring.

The wheat flour used is generally of high extraction and is ground locally in villages. The dough rises overnight with some dough from the previous batch. Small loaves of 25 cm round and 5 mm thick are formed, using whole ground maize flour to prevent sticking. The loaves are then spun out to full size by an intricate motion of both arms. It is baked on one side only for 1 to 1.5 minutes on shallow metal dome over a wood fire.

Most families in mountain areas of Lebanon produced bread in this manner. The bread does not stale easily and is stored in metal containers for 1 to 2 weeks.

MATHI, PREPARED WITH GHEE

A thick dough from flour, ghee, salt and water is prepared. Small, thin cakes are formed and fried in ghee.

MEDAMIS (MEDAMMES)

Medamis is a popular Egyptian stewed broadbean dish. Broadbeans are soaked overnight in water with baking soda added. They are drained, simmered gently in salted water until tender, then seasoned with garlic, lemon juice and olive oil. Medamis is eaten warm.

MESU (SWEET)

Heavy syrup is prepared from sugar and water. Chickpea flour is roasted until pink, then mixed with the syrup. Ghee or oil is heated and gradually added to the flour mixture. Cooking continues until the mixture becomes very thick. Then it is spread in a tray. When cool, mesu is cut into rectangular pieces.

MISH CHEESE

Mish is a type of Egyptian cheese prepared from any kind of soft cheese.

The cheese is salted and stored in jars with its whey. After 2 months or more, the whey is drained and replaced by milk which has been boiled and cooled. The cheese is salted (10 to 15 percent), mixed with pepper and put into jars, which are completely sealed, then stored for 6 months.

MOUNTAIN CHEESE

Mountain cheese is a white, semisoft cheese similar to baladi cheese. It is prepared from goat's or sheep's milk. This type of cheese is usually eaten fresh because it does not keep long.

The milk is coagulated with rennet tablets. The resulting curd is shaped into balls of 8 to 10 cm in diameter, which are then stored in salted whey.

MUNGRA, PREPARED WITH GHEE

A soft dough is prepared by mixing the chickpea flour, ghee, salt and sodium bicarbonate with some water. Small balls of about 1 cm in diameter are made and fried in ghee.

NABET (SPROUTED BROADBEAN SOUP)

Broadbeans are soaked in water for two days to germinate, drained and simmered in salted water until tender. Cardamom seeds and miski (mastric gum) are fried and added to the boiled beans. Nabet is eaten hot with or without lemon juice.

NAMAK PARAY, PREPARED WITH GHEE

A thick dough is prepared by mixing the flour, ghee, salt and some water. The dough is rolled thin, cut into small pieces and fried in ghee.

NAN (NAUN) BREAD

Dough is prepared from the above ingredients, covered and allowed to rise, divided into four portions, which are allowed to stand an additional 5 minutes. Each ball of dough is shaped into an oval loaf of about 17 cm by 30 cm by 1 cm. After shaping, three fingers are dipped into cold water and run lengthwise down the center of each loaf to make deep grooves. The loaves are then baked until brown.

NOUGL WITH ALMONDS (SWEET)

Nougl is a confection of roasted almonds formed into stick shapes and coated with sugar.

PAKORAY (SWEET)

Syrup is prepared from sugar and water to which rice flour is added gradually. The mixture is kneaded and formed into balls of about 2.5 cm in diameter. The pakoray are then fried in ghee.

PARATHA BREAD

Paratha is prepared from whole wheat flour, salt and water. Balls of dough are shaped and then rolled out to a thickness of 0.5 cm, brushed with ghee, rolled like a jelly roll, cut into 20 cm pieces, made into circles, flattened and then fried in ghee. Paratha is usually eaten warm with jam or honey.

PATEESA (SWEET)

Chickpea flour is roasted in ghee or oil, sugar is added according to taste, then roasting is continued until the mixture becomes fibrous. The mixture is shaped into flat disks.

PETHA (SWEET)

Peeled pumpkin pieces are boiled in water until soft. The pumpkin is pierced with a fork frequently while boiling. The cooked pumpkin pieces are washed with a solution of calcium oxide to make them firm. Syrup is prepared from sugar and water. The pumpkin pieces are soaked in the syrup for 24 hours, then removed and the remaining syrup boiled until thick. The pumpkin pieces are returned to the thickened syrup before eating.

PHUL TIKI (SWEET)

Low extraction wheat flour is kneaded with sugar syrup to make a thick dough, which is rolled into small, circular disks. A mixture of oil and goat's fat is applied to the surface of the disks, then they are fried in oil. The goat's fat helps make the texture flaky and crisp.

PINNI (SWEET)

Wheat starch is roasted in ghee, then flour and semolina are added and roasting is continued. Milk and sugar are added and cooked until almost dry. Nuts are added before the balls of about 5 cm in diameter are formed.

POORI, PREPARED WITH GHEE

The flours, salt and ghee are mixed with some water to form a thick dough, which is then rolled into circular disks and fried in ghee.

PURA (SWEET)

Semolina, flour, sugar and water are mixed. The batter is poured form a glass into hot ghee, forming thin cakes, and fried.

PURI BREAD

Lentils are boiled in water, then drained. Flour, salt and enough water to form a medium-thick dough are added. The mixture is shapped into balls, rolled into flat loaves of about 10 cm in diameter and 0.2 cm thick, then fried in hot oil. Puri is usually eaten at breakfast with jam or boiled chickpeas.

RAS CHEESE (KEFALOTYRI)

Ras cheese is hard, strongly flavored and heavily salted.

Ras is prepared from partially separated sheep's milk. Sometimes it is mixed with goat's milk. The milk is heated to 32 degrees C and inoculated with rennet. The resulting curd is stirred vigorously to form very small particles and to liberate some of the whey. The temperature is raised to 45 degrees C and curd particles are allowed to settle.

The curd is put into cheesecloth lined molds, which are put under a press. After pressing, the cheese is removed from the molds and a small quantity of dry salt is rubbed on the surface. This salting is repeated for 2 months, with several applications of brine to prevent drying. When the cheese becomes hard it is ready for use.

RAS MALAI

Ras malai are small balls of cheese boiled in thin sugar syrup and then put in thickened milk.

For its preparation, milk is boiled, cooled, citric acid is added, stirred until a curd forms and then strained. Starch is added to the curd and small balls are formed, then boiled in sugar syrup. An additional amount of milk is boiled down to half its volume. The curd balls are added to the reduced milk and refrigerated.

RASGULLA

Rasgullas are cheese balls which have been simmered in thin sugar syrup and then cooled before serving.

Milk is boiled and lemon juice added, then filtered through cheesecloth to collect the curd. The curd is mixed with flour and cream, then kneaded and shaped into small balls. A cardamom seed is put in each ball.

A thin syrup is prepared from sugar and water, then brought to a boil. The rasgullas are added to the boiling syrup one by one and allowed to swell. The syrup and rasgullas are removed from the heat and allowed to cool before eating.

SANGAK BREAD

Sangak (literally “little stone”) is a sour dough bread, always consumed fresh, and very popular in Iran. It is a flat bread 3 to 5 mm thick and 70 cm long by 50 cm wide.

The first four ingredients are combined and kneaded. The dough is allowed to rest 30 minutes. Dough from a previous batch is added, kneaded again and allowed to rise for 1 to 2 hours.

Balls of dough are formed and flattened on a special flat paddle with a long handle. Holes are made throughout the surface of the dough and sprinkled with sesame or poppy seeds if desired. Then the paddle is placed on the floor of a preheated oven which is covered with small stones. Baking time is 4 to 5 minutes.

SAUSAGE, ARMENIAN (SOUJOUK)

Soujouk is an Armenian specialty but it is widely consumed in Lebanon, Syria, Egypt and Turkey. It may be prepared from beef, mutton or buffalo meat.

The above ingredients are mixed and refrigerated overnight. It is then stuffed into a casing (beef intestine), pricked with a fork, and put under a press overnight to remove excess liquid. The sausage is then hung in the shade for drying.

SAUSAGE, EGYPTIAN

Egyptian sausage is prepared the same way as Armenian sausage except that buffalo meat is generally used.

SAUSAGE, LEBANESE

Lebanese sausages are prepared from pork. beef and mutton and cured with a mixture of spices and wine.

The meat is ground and mixed with the spices, salt and wine. It is then packed into a casing (usually sheep intestine) and hung to cure from 4 hours to 2 days.

SEWIAN (SWEET)

Vermicellies of about 2.5 cm long are formed from a thick dough of chickpea flour and water. They are fried in oil and then soaked in thick sugar syrup.

SEWIAN SALTISH

A thick dough is prepared by mixing the above ingredients. Vermicellies (about 2.5 cm long) are formed and fried in ghee or oil. Sewian saltish is usually eaten with a meat dish.

SHAKAR PARAY (SWEET)

The flour, yogurt and sodium bicarbonate are mixed with water to form a thick dough. Balls of about 2.5 cm in diameter are formed and fried in ghee. They are then soaked in heavy sugar syrup.

SHAMSY BREAD, WHITE

Shamsy is prepared from a low extraction wheat flour, yeast and water. Loaves of about 20 cm in diameter and 5 to 6 cm thick are formed and allowed to rise for 1 to 2 hours. The loaves are pricked at the edges with a fork and then baked in a clay oven heated by wood fire. Shamsy is similar to French bread.

SHAMY BREAD (WHITE OR BROWN)

Shamy bread may by prepared from a low extraction wheat flour or from whole wheat flour to which 15 percent bran is added. It is similar to Arabic bread, it is in two layers, 25 to 30 cm in diameter, but thicker than Arabic bread. This type of bread is baked in commercial bakeries and is used to prepare sandwiches. (In Egypt, shamy bread is used to prepare broadbean sandwiches.)

SHANKLISH CHEESE

Shanklish cheese is a ripened cheese using wild mold as the ripening agent.

It is prepared by heating (but not boiling) defatted yogurt, which causes proteins to coagulate and flocculate. The coagulated product, arysh, is cooled and filtered on sheets of cloth, then heavily salted, peppered and rolled into small balls. The balls are sun-dried for 3 days, then stored in jars for 20 to 30 days until completely covered with wild mold. The product is then washed with water, covered with thyme and stored in glass jars.

SHIRMAL SWEET BREAD

Shirmal is prepared from a low extraction wheat flour, sugar, butter and milk. The bread is about 20 cm in diameter, 2 cm thick, and the crust is covered with sesame seeds. It is usually baked commercially on the walls of a spherical oven.

SLICED TYPE BREAD

Sliced type bread is a rectangular, soft crust bread, about 25 cm by 10 cm by 10 cm, that is bakery sliced.

Dough is prepared from the above ingredients and allowed to rise twice. It is shaped and placed in baking pans, allowed to rise until more than double in size, then baked for about 35 minutes. Loaves are cooled before slicing.

SORGHUM BREAD (INJERA)

The flour is mixed with 1200 g of water and the yeast. The dough is kneaded and allowed to rise overnight. About 2 hours before baking, 600 g of boiling water is mixed with one-eighth of the dough. This mixture is boiled and stirred constantly for 10 minutes. The cooked mixture and the remaining water are mixed with the rest of the dough. It is allowed to rise another 2 hours. After it is stirred, small amounts of batter are poured onto a preheated griddle to bake.

Sorghum bread is usually eaten with a meat or vegetable stew.

STAMBOULI CHEESE

Stambouli is a white, semisoft cheese similar to akkawi cheese. Its name comes from Turkey. It was a common item on the Lebanese market for a few years, but it is no longer produced in Lebanon. It is usually prepared from cow's milk, but sheep's milk may be used if available.

The milk is coagulated with commercial rennet tablets. The curd is pressed into 10 cm square molds. The cheese cubes are removed from the molds and stored in tin cans containing brine until consumed.

TAAMIA (FALAFEL)

Taamia is prepared in Egypt by soaking decorticated broadbeans overnight in water, draining, then putting the beans, onions and garlic through a meat grinder. The mixture is seasoned with coriander, hot red pepper, cumin, allspice and salt. Small patties are formed in a special mold, then fried in oil. Taamia is eaten hot with vegetables and tehineh sauce.

In other countries, chickpeas are used instead of broadbeans and the product is called falafel.

TABRIZ (LOGHMAN) CHEESE

Tabriz is a white, semisoft cheese with numerous holes. It is prepared from sheep's milk and has a sour flavor. The name comes from Loghman, a village in Tabriz, where it is prepared.

The milk is coagulated with rennet tablets, the curd packed into triangular cloth bags (40 cm by 40 cm by 40 cm) and allowed to drain thoroughly. The triangular block of cheese, which is about 20 cm thick, is removed from the bag and put in an earthenware pot, covered with salt, and allowed to stand for 2 days. It is eaten at breakfast or dinner with fresh bread. This cheese is eaten fresh.

TAFTOON BREAD (BAZARI)

Taftoon is a flat, round, sour dough bread of about 30 to 40 cm in diameter and 3 to 5 mm thick with small holes on its surface.

Balls of dough are formed and flattened on a round cushion. The shaped dough is baked on the surface of a spherical oven for about 1.5 minutes.

TEHINEH

Tehineh is an off-white, stable emulsion extracted from sesame seeds. Tehineh is used in the preparation of many Near Eastern dishes.

The sesame seeds are soaked in salt water to separate the hulls and dirt from the seeds. During this soaking process, the seeds float due to their high oil content.

The floating seeds are collected in strainers and washed with water to remove traces of salt and hulls. The seeds are then roasted under 4 atmospheres of pressure with agitation for over 2 hours. The roasted seeds, now very high in oil, are crushed by circular rotating rocks. The resulting emulsion, tehineh, is put into containers.

TEHINEH BREAD

Tehineh bread is an Armenian delicacy often eaten at breakfast. It is about 20 cm in diameter and 1 cm thick, but is not double-layered like Arabic bread.

Dough is prepared from the flour, yeast, salt and water. Balls of dough are formed and rolled to 0.5 cm thickness, then brushed with tehineh and sprinkled generously with sugar. The dough is then rolled like a jelly roll, cut into 20 cm pieces, formed into circles, flattened and baked at 160 degrees C for 30 minutes or until golden brown.

TOSTO BREAD, WHITE

The dough is prepared from the above ingredients, allowed to rise twice, then baked in pans (25 cm by 10 cm by 10 cm) for 30 minutes at 250 degrees C. The bread is sliced after it cools, toasted on both sides in a warm oven and eaten at breakfast.

VANASPATI

Vanaspati is a commercially hydrogenated vegetable oil mixture. Cottonseed oil is usually the major constituent oil. Soybean oil, mustard seed oil, rapeseed oil and sesame seed oil are also used in the preparation of vanaspati.

While ghee is the main dietary fat consumed in some areas of the Near East, vanaspaties are being used increasingly as ghee substitutes.

WHITE (BULGARIAN) CHEESE

White cheese is usually prepared from whole sheep's milk, but sometimes from cow's milk.

It is prepared by pasteurizing the milk at 68 degrees C for 10 minutes. A mixture of Streptococcus lactis and S. cremoris is used as a starter. Coagulation takes place in 60 minutes at 30 to 32 degrees C. The curd is poured into molds, pressed and cut into pieces 10 by 10 cm and immersed in saturated brine for 12 to 14 hours, then it is packed into plastic boxes containing salted whey.

APPENDIX 4

FACTORS USED FOR CALCULATING ENERGY VALUES OF FOODS BY THE ATWATER SYSTEM

FACTORS USED FOR CALCULATING PROTEIN FROM NITROGEN CONTENT OF FOODS

LIPID CONVERSION FACTORS FOR CALCULATING FATTY ACID CONTENT OF FOODS

APPENDIX 5
ESTIMATED DISTRIBUTION OF SOURCES OF VITAMIN A ACTIVITY (AS IU) IN VARIOUS FOODS