7. REGIONAL UPDATE FOR THE MEDITERRANEAN by M. Bariteau^[8]

Introduction

The Mediterranean regions are situated in the west of the Continent, at sub-tropical latitudes between 25° and 45°. The climate is characterised by a strong pluviometric deficit during the hot season, and by a cool or cold winter that does not allow vegetation to make use of winter rains. Other regions of the world outside the Mediterranean basin have a Mediterranean bio-climate: California, Chile, South Africa, and Australia. We will only consider a priori in this report, the countries around the Mediterranean Sea: Albania, Algeria, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Cyprus, Croatia, Egypt, Spain, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Macedonia, Malta, Morocco, Portugal, Slovenia, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey (the list is not exhaustive).

The Mediterranean is made up of a large number of countries. It is notable for a history during which the first human civilisations appeared on earth. The present political landscape is complex. The level of economic development is also very variable, with the south of the basin still very rural (the population is expanding in size, exercising strong pressure on the forest that is largely state-owned), and the north more strongly industrial (rural areas generally privately owned, and a strong agricultural decline)

The key characteristic of the Mediterranean environment as it affects its biology is the existence of a strong man-made impact on the Mediterranean climate, in the late-glacial era, as well as a strong biological diversity resulting from a close evolution between man and the environment (CLEMENT, 1999)

Under these conditions, it is necessary to broadly understand these genetic resources as being a very valuable heritage for mankind, not only of a biological type but also a social and cultural one.

Legislative and operational aspects

In Europe

In Europe, in general terms, the most significant advances in the conservation of forest genetic resources have been achieved under the impetus of the EUFORGEN networks. These networks have been created following the second ministerial conference on the protection of forests in Europe (Helsinki, 1993) and are managed by IPGRI with the help of the forestry department of FAO. EUFORGEN is a co-operative program whose principal aim is to facilitate the exchange of information and experience, so as to define, in a concerted manner, objectives and methods of conservation of forest genetic resources (ARBEZ, 1994). In each network (black poplar, conifers, Mediterranean oaks, "noble hardwoods", "social broadleaves"), there are Mediterranean participants. The Mediterranean oaks network results from the expansion of the cork oak network. It is coordinated by Spain, and brings together a group of countries in the Mediterranean area. The meetings were carried out, at the beginning of the network, jointly with those of the European Concerted Action entitled "European network for the evaluation of genetic resources of Cork oak for appropriate uses in breeding and gene conservation strategies ". This has allowed, thanks to complementary financing from the European Union, enhancement of the network by participation of non-European countries which cover a part of the distribution of cork oak (Maghreb countries).

In addition, the Natura 2000 network aims to help preserve biological diversity in the European Union territory. It will ensure the maintenance or the re-establishment of natural habitats and species habitats of flora and fauna that are of Community interest. It is made up of sites especially designated by each Member State, following the 1979 and 1992 European "Birds" and "Habitats" directives. In appendix 1, an inventory of the sites proposed by the European Mediterranean countries can be found.

In France, the public authorities have chosen to elaborate and put in place a national policy concerning genetic resources, with regard to the international obligations to which France is party. A national structure has been created - the Commission on Forest Genetic Resources (CGRF) - charged with defining practical methods of implementing policy, in particular by setting up a national network for management and conservation of genetic resources of the principal forest species (with a combination of in situ and ex situ methods: see appendix 2). A charter of good practice, specific to forestry, was established in October 1997. A guide entitled "Conservation of forest genetic resources in France" was published in 1999 and has been recently translated into English (TEISSIER du CROS E., Editor 2001). France coordinates the EUFORGEN network on the "social broadleaves" as well as the European network GENRES 78 "Coordination for conservation, characterisation, collection and utilization of genetic resources of European elms" which includes 9 European countries, of which five are Mediterranean.

In Italy, as in many other Mediterranean countries, the genetic conservation of forest species is limited to the identification of seed stands (with exception of Fagus sylvatica, for which special reserves exist). Currently 145 seed stands have been identified, listed in a national Register, covering the principal Italian forest species. An active policy of conservation has been agreed: approximately 10% of the territory will be under specific statute for protection in the immediate future, as opposed to approximate7% currently (DUCCI et al, 1999).

Spain adopted a national forest policy in 2000. It includes the creation of a Conservation and Amelioration of the Forest Genetic Resources Network, integrating the participation of autonomous Provinces and the State (Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Sciences and Technology, and Ministry of Agriculture). In 2000, a monograph on the conservation of forest genetic resources was published with a compilation for each species (resources, regulations, threats, priorities, actions in progress etc). Spain has a seed bank to ensure the conservation ex situ of the most threatened species. Projects have been developed for several years for the conservation of species concerning the genera Ulmus, Taxus, Castanea (inventory, ecological characteristics, selection of plus trees, vegetative multiplication, establishment of clone banks....).

Portugal and Greece take part in the main European conservation networks already mentioned: EUFORGEN (in particular, the network for Mediterranean oaks), Natura 2000 (appendix 1), GENRES (conservation of elms threatened by Ophiostoma ulmi). Portugal has created over the last years 460 000 ha of natural reserves and parks intended to protect oak stands threatened by the fires (Quercus robur, Quercus pyrenaica, Quercus faginea).

Southern and Eastern Mediterranean

In the Maghreb countries, the depletion of forest resources is demanding urgent measurements with regard to conservation.

In Morocco, a global strategy for management of forest resources has been prepared following a consultation held under aegis of FAO. Detailed recommendations have been put forward by scientists resulting from the working groups of the seminar of Salé in 1997, on Amelioration, Conservation and Utilisation of Moroccan Forest Genetic Resources (5 workshops: Cork oak, pines, Eucalyptus, Atlas Cedar and Cypress, Arganier). For indigenous species, priority is given to conservation activities: assessment of research on genetic improvement, creation of new experiments, then establishment in each Provenance Region seed stands according to OECD/EEC standards (conservation and production of seeds for reforestation). When necessary protective measures will be carried out for in situ conservation, and supplemented by ex situ conservation plantations. For introduced species, the priority will be genetic improvement.

In Algeria, the forest is very degraded. Certain species have escaped form human activities than others, due to the fact that their stands are in national parks or natural reserves (e.g. cedars in the Tellien Atlas, and firs in Babors). In total, more than 50 million hectares are classified as National parks and protected areas (FAO, 1995)

The Aurès massif has a concentration of real treasures in terms of biodiversity, with species of international interest, such as Atlas Cedar. As for the Moroccan mountains, the disappearance of forests accelerated five years ago, principally because of a more pronounced dry season. The forests have little management, are over-mature, and natural regeneration is largely absent. Political instability and insecurity have not allowed conservation measures to be applied to the threatened forests, and illegal cutting has increased in certain periods. Some forests have been destroyed to avoid giving refuge to armed groups (Bainem forest, for example). The situation in this area of the Mediterranean basin is particularly alarming and should be a priority for attention of the international community.

In Tunisia, nearly 400.000 ha of natural and artificial forests are under management, i.e. 75 % of the total forest of the country. The natural ecosystems currently protected make up approximately 218,000 ha., representing only 2% of the natural rural area of the country, which is insufficient for sustainable management of the natural resources and to achieve a tangible impact. A voluntary policy of conservation of genetic resources was described in the national report on biological diversity (GEF/BIRD project).

In Turkey, significant efforts have been made by the forest service to identify seed stands (344 stands covering 46.300 ha for 27 species), and forests dedicated to conservation (162 stands covering 23,260 ha for 23 species: see appendix 3). The biodiversity of the Turkish forests is notable and constitutes a real repository for the Mediterranean. The efforts made by Turkey in the management and protection of the resources are exemplary and deserve to be underlined. Turkey is also an important participant in the EUFORGEN program, notably within the "Mediterranean oaks" network.

In Lebanon, projects have been set up with the help of international co-operation for the protection of forested land (approximately 7% of the country). Cedar is a priority. Approximately 2000 ha of fragmented cedar plantations remain (BARITEAU, 1992). Conservation projects are also being developed for Caroubier (Ceratonia siliqua) which is regarded as a potential species for afforestation.

Participatory systems

It has not been able to make an assessment for the group of countries listed in introduction, but generally, it can be affirmed that in all Mediterranean countries, broad policies exist for forest protection. A large number of areas have the status of National Park, or Natural Reserve. However, this designation is not always effective for the protection of genetic resources, and it would be useful to make a precise assessment of the situation of the most valuable and most threatened resources at regular intervals, country by country. For example, grazing pressure is not always easy to control even within these Parks. This is partly the situation in Algeria, where it is even more urgent to apply forest management to very mature stands without regeneration. Real protection solutions cannot exist, at least in southern countries, without an appreciation by the local population of the problems of conservation (such as has occurred for example in Lebanon's cedar forests), and without putting in place participatory process acceptable to the local community, and involving the population in the management and the rehabilitation of the forest (AUCLAIR, 1996).

At global level within the Mediterranean basin, WWF's initiative should be noted, which classifies Mediterranean forests among the richest and most threatened ecoregions in the world, within the framework of the program Global 200, which itself identifies all the key zones whose biological diversity must be preserved. A booklet entitled "Mediterranean Forests; a new conservation strategy" was published in January 2001. The Mediterranean program of WWF launched a campaign in 1999 to protect 10 outstanding forest sites chosen from among 300 sites identified from an exhaustive study of the area. The campaign has produced encouraging results in Spain, Turkey, Croatia and Lebanon (appendix 4).

Biological aspects

State of the forests

Human activities have modified the diversity of Mediterranean ecosystems for millennia. As a result, this has significantly reduced the forest cover. Estimated at originally 82% of total area, it is currently limited to between 15% to 20% on average. In certain critical situations, this rate goes down to less than 5%, as in the Near East (e.g. Syria).

In mountainous zones of the Mediterranean, certain forests have been preserved in a relatively good state. This is especially true of areas with pronounced topography, or that are traditionally sparsely inhabited (certain zones of the Taurus in Turkey, for example). Everywhere else, human pressure has resulted, since time immemorial, in the transformation by goat or sheep, or by agricultural development leaving little place for the forest. In zones closer to the coast, the existence of particularly well adapted forest species, particularly in their resistance to drought, has allowed the maintenance of forests areas in non-agricultural zones, which constitute essential resources for the rural populations (oak groves, pine forests with Pinus halepensis and Pinus brutia).

A high plant biodiversity is observed around river courses, where the flora in open areas is particularly rich. Overall, the Mediterranean is home to 10% of flowering plants, all within an area of 1.5% of the Earth's surface. It is considered by the ecologists as a "hot spot" for terrestrial biodiversity, second only to tropical rainforest. In addition to the open environments, forests are not surpassed, the list of species being considerably wider than in temperate areas. In addition, species widespread within temperate zones reach maximum infra-specific diversity in the Mediterranean area. Such is the case, for example, of beech (appendix 5). The disappearance of certain Mediterranean populations that may not appear significant on a global scale, but can nevertheless result in a considerable loss in terms of "neutral diversity". In terms of adaptation, there are also considerable spots of diversity, related to heterogeneity of the Mediterranean environments, and the presence of plants in various ecological niches.

The degradation of the Mediterranean environment has accelerated in the last decades, and if some examples of the political will concerning conservation can be cited, the dominant impression is one of concern over the increasing threat facing the Mediterranean forests. By way of example, in EUFORGEN's list of European conifers, the species that can be designated as endangered according to IUCN (Red List IUCN 2000), are almost all of Mediterranean origin (appendix 6). Several things could explain this deteriorating trend:

- political instability and wars (Balkans, the Near East, Algeria).

- forest fires

- overexploitation by rural populations

- increasing urbanisation of coastal zones

- increasingly long and frequent periods of drought

Countries north of the Mediterranean:

The situation is in fact very different in the countries of southern Europe, compared to the remainder of the Mediterranean basin. Economic development is characterised by a marked depression in agriculture, which has been even stronger in the last few years. The principal threat is a lack of concern, which results in the expansion of waste lands and environmental impoverishment during biological recovery: the typical flora of exposed areas is gradually replaced by forest flora, which is more impoverished, being representative of the mid-European environments (for example, by return to the beech-fir stands in mountain zones). It is also noticeable that exotic species introduced more than a century ago during afforestation (e.g. pines) are gradually being replaced by climax species which regenerate under their shade (i.e. broadleaved trees). The question arises of knowing how the genetic diversity of new stands evolves, when they are formed from very limited, and sometimes distant, seed sources. Recent studies in France have improved understanding (SAGNARD, 2001). In some very limited cases, the introduced species form a new, healthy and dynamic ecosystem (e.g. cedar, Douglas fir). In the case of the Atlas Cedar, the man-made French stands are significantly large compared to the natural stands (20 000 ha in France, as against 200 000 ha for the whole of Algeria and Morocco), constituting a new reserve of diversity for the species.

The abandonment of ancestral practices, strong vegetation dynamics, and the increase in the urban/forest interface, all result in very high risks of fire in the driest zones (generally coastal). For the last two or three years, extensive fires have decimated thousands of hectares of forests in Greece and Spain. Drought and increasing urbanisation have caused this growing threat to the coastal environment. The losses with regard to diversity can be significant, even for species with wide distribution. Greece, for example, is a zone of very strong infra-specific diversity for Pinus brutia (appendix 5).

In Spain, the drought is an exacerbating factor for small fragmented natural populations, located at the limits of their ecological range where there are extreme conditions (e.g. Pinus genera, Quercus suber). The ecological conditions in the South of Spain are comparable with those of the south of the Mediterranean basin.

Countries south of the Mediterranean:

In countries to the south of the Mediterranean basin, and in countries of the Near East, forests are subjected to strong human pressures, linked to the continued existence of a rural population with a low standard of living. Prolonged droughts and overgrazing have strongly accelerated the disappearance or decline of the forests. Needs for firewood are critical. The cedar forests of the High Atlas Mountains in Morocco are gradually disappearing as a result of cutting and pruning of the trees, the foliage being used for fodder. In Rif, agricultural clearings also threaten natural stands, especially of fine cedar (the pressures linked to the "Kif" culture are even more strong in the recent past). In Aurès, in Algeria, overgrazing by cattle and goats considerably limits natural regeneration of cedar stands, which decline for no clear reason. The over-maturity of the trees, the absence of management (e.g. sanitation thinning) and drought, are without doubt significant factors in the progressive disappearance of these forests, the last "green barriers" before the desert. In the Maghreb, certain species only exist in isolated stands: in the case of Cupressus dupreziana, the resource consists of nothing more than a few hundred trees in the desert region of Tassili. It has been shown recently that the Tassili cypress sexually reproduces by paternal apomixy, without meiotic reduction and involvement of the maternal genes (PICHOT et al, 2001). Diversity could be reduced by just one individual. This type of reproduction could result in adaptation that avoids the inevitable inbreeding of such a reduced population. Other species that are under very precarious conditions, with very reduced extent, and without specific protection status to allow for natural regeneration, are: Pinus nigra mauretanica, Abies pinsapo marocana, Abies numidica....Without specific measures, they could disappear in future years, at least in their respective natural distributions.

In the Near East, the forest is very reduced. The few natural stands remaining are not healthy nor stable anymore, and they are threatened by disease or pests (see below under "research"). Active policies of reforestation are being implemented in Israel and in Lebanon but in the absence of precautionary measures, they could have negative consequences on the natural resources by causing genetic pollution from introduction of exotic sources, such as the hybridisation between species (e.g. Lebanon cedars: atlantica x libani, Aleppo pine in Israel: halepensis x brutia). In Turkey, in spite of the efforts agreed to by public authorities (the forest is 99% domanial), the richness of the forest is such that threats persist: they concern either species of greatest interest, with limits of ecological distribution as for cedar east of the Taurus or in Anatolia (ALPTEKIN et al, 1997), or of species of lesser interest (Cupressus sempervirens, Liquidambar orientalis), but for which Turkey offers stands that are unique in the world (such as the cypress forest of Köprülü Kanyon).

Research

The last five years have been fruitful with regard to research, particularly because of financing by the European Union for projects on diversity and adaptation of Mediterranean forest species:

• MPC "Adaptation and selection of Mediterranean Pinus and Cedrus for sustainable reafforestation of Marginal lands".

• FORADAPT "Global physiological and molecular responses to climatic stresses of three Mediterranean conifers".

• "Biodiversity audit and sustainable exploitation of Cedars (Cedrus spp) in the Mediterranean region"

• "European network for the evaluation of genetic resources of Cork oak for appropriate uses in breeding and gene conservation strategies"

  etc.

In the case of cork oak, the concerted action "European network...." has been joined up with the EUFORGEN network. The natural distribution was sampled with the help of a provenance and progeny collections, then the establishment of comparative plantations in the various participating countries (appendix 7). This Action meets both the needs to predict the future with respect to genetic improvement of cork quality, but also makes it possible to put together a remarkable ex situ collection for what is considered to be a very threatened species. A handbook was written to synthesise the experience acquired in this network.

Notable advances with respect to molecular tools have allowed exploration of "neutral diversity" of species that are very widespread around the perimeter of the basin, but whose genetic diversity could be threatened: e.g. Pinus halepensis, Pinus brutia, Cedrus sp., Pinus pinaster etc. DNA markers (chloroplastic and nuclear microsatellites) developed inter alia by the CNR of Florence and INRA of Avignon have allowed progress in understanding the diversity of the Mediterranean pines and cedars (KEYS et al, 2000). Researchers at the University of Thessalonica in Greece have demonstrated the existence of natural hybrids between Pinus halepensis and Pinus brutia, in zones where reforestation has been carried out with the two species in close proximity. It has been shown that the two species have very different adaptive characteristics and that these introgressions represent a real danger to the forest resources. The natural resource of Aleppo pine in Israel (Mount Carmel) is threatened by genetic pollution from Aleppo pine that is not indigenous, and less resistant to drought (the cochineal bug Matsucoccus josephi is also a factor weakening this rare indigenous forest resource in Israel). Phenomena of genetic pollution of the same type as the pine complex of the Section halepensis are possible for the 3 species of Mediterranean cedars: possibilities of inter-specific hybridisation have been shown (Cedrus atlantica, C. brevifolia, C. libani).

In Spain, research is focussed on the genetic diversity of Pinus and Quercus species. The Maghreb countries were equipped with laboratories for diversity markers, and studies based on a variety of isoenzymatic markers have been published for the last four years (EL ALAMI et al, 1997).

These projects have allowed further exploration of the diversity of conifers of importance to the Mediterranean area, and for which FAO had already started decisive actions (Silva Mediterranea; FAO 1997). In some cases, new comparative tests were set up in the forest, and will make it possible to understand and control the resources better (e.g. comparative progeny plantations of Aleppo pine in Tunisia, cedar plantations in Greece). In Turkey, a large research programme on genetic improvement of the major forest species has been underway for 5 years (in particular for Brutia pine; ISIK et al, 2000). This has resulted in some original scientific publications, regulations for transfer of seed in reforestation schemes, and the establishment of a genuine conservation network for the resources (appendix 3). Finally, forest genetics is a subject where the Mediterranean region can develop its own scientific resources to face the challenges posed. Entomology also used to be a field of excellence in the Mediterranean; this field of science is in retreat, due to a lack of training and recruitment of naturalists and taxonomists. The threats are, however, real: for example, a new cedar pest has been discovered by G. Demolin in forest of Tanourine in Lebanon, and significant means for chemical and biological warfare have been engaged to eradicate it. The deterioration of this cedar stand is worrying and is continuing; research must be pursued on this pest.

A dwindling in scientific assets is to be feared if the European Union does not take into account the Mediterranean dimension in the construction of the future European Research Area. The forest research networks set up during the 4th and 5th PCRD could be proposed as "networks of excellence" for the future framework programme.

Recommendations

The accentuation of drought, probably related to climatic change, combined with other factors of man-made origin, is creating an urgent situation for forest conservation in the Mediterranean basin, particularly in the south and east. The lack of awareness of this phenomenon by the international community is striking, while at the same time the ecological and social consequences of the decline of this forest are major. It is proposed that a recommendation should be put forward by the panel of experts that should give very high priority in years to come to actions aimed at conservation of the Mediterranean forest genetic resources.

Acknowledgements

This report has been prepared thanks to information provided by the following persons:

Algeria: Adallah Bentouati (University of Batna) and Arezki Derridj (University of Tizi-Ouzou)

Spain: Sonia Martin Albertos (Ministry of the Environment)

France: Eric Teissier du Cros (INRA)

Greece: Phil Aravanopoulos (University of Thessalonika)

Israel: Gabriel Schiller (The Volcani Centre - Bet Dagan)

Italy: Elena Paoletti, Paolo Raddi, Giovanni Giuseppe Vendramin (CNR Florence); Fulvio Ducci (ISSA Arezzo)

Lebanon: Fadi Asmar (Minister of Agriculture)

Morocco: Hassan Sbay (CNRF) and Mohamed Benzyane (Direction des Forêts)

Portugal: Maria Carolina Varela (INIA)

Tunisia: Abdelhamid Khaldi and Mohamed Larbi Khouja (INRGREF)

Turkey: Fikret Isik (N.C. State University USA) et Unal Alptekin (University of Istanbul)

Appendix 1

From the "Habitats directive": proposals for sites, presented to the European Commission, likely to be recognised of Community importance (Mediterranean countries)

(Source: European Commission; 1^st August 2000)

NB: France appears overall as a limited "proposer". However, the two French Mediterranean regions of Languedoc-Roussillon and Provence-Alpes-Côte-d’Azur are top of the list for their proposals (between 35% and 45% of the area of these regions!). This shows not only their biological wealth, but also local awareness of the need to protect these remarkable sites.

Appendix 2

French network for management and conservation of forest genetic resources

(text of Michèle Phélep, taken from the guide "Conserving forest genetic resources in France" - Eric Teissieur du Cros, co-ordinator, 1999)

In addition to the tree species of concern to the European working groups resulting from the Strasbourg Conference (conifers, Mediterranean oaks, black poplar, "noble hardwoods" and "social broadleaves"), national priority has also given, for the first time, to silver fir and common elm.

Two in situ conservation networks for silver fir (Abies alba) and beech (Fagus sylvatica), are in place. They comprise about twenty and thirty sites respectively, established in public forest and managed by the National Forest Service (ONF). The conservation units consist of a central "hard core", containing the population to be preserved, surrounded by a broad isolation zone to reduce genetic contamination from pollen or seeds of nearby stands. These sites are managed using the silvicultural system usually practised in the forests where they were established, but with specific limitations noted in a schedule of procedures appropriate to each species. These limitations almost exclusively concern regeneration. They are mainly for the manager (in normal stands):

• program regeneration in the central core before that of the isolation zone,

• maintain at least 60 seed trees per hectare in the seed thinning,

• if there will be more or less total failure of natural regeneration, carry out artificial regeneration using forest reproductive material coming exclusively from thinnings made in the same stand.

Two static ex situ conservation stands concerning elm (mainly common elm, Ulmus campestris) and black poplar (Populus nigra) were created as clone banks. The elm is also subject of a cryo-conservation programme. With regard to black poplar, the establishment of an in situ conservation network is being studied.

For wild cherry (Prunus avium), in addition to static ex situ conservation in the form of mother trees, two dynamic ex situ conservation plots were established in Brittany and the Mid-Pyrenees. The establishment of in situ conservation plots is also envisaged.

An in situ conservation network is in place for sessile oak (Quercus petraea). Soon it will be extended to include the complex of large European oaks (Quercus robur, Quercus petraea and to a lesser extent Quercus pubescens).

Conservation networks are also being established for common spruce (Picea abies), maritime pine (Pinus pinaster) and mountain ash (Sorbus spp.).

All the networks are co-ordinated by species, on a voluntary basis, by a network organiser provided by the national organisations involved in the conservation of forest genetic resources. The network organisers periodically report to the Forest Genetic Resources Commission.

The next priorities in terms of species will be proposed by the Forest Genetic Resources Commission, based on work completed within the framework of the methodological support cell, including: the large "social" tree species; species subject to significant improvement programmes; and rare species.

Appendix 3

Conservation forests in Turkey

(source: Ankara Institute for Forest Improvement website: www.ortohum.gov.tr)

Appendix 4

The 10 Mediterranean forest «hotspots» listed by WWF

(source: «Mediterranean forests; a new conservation strategy», WWF, 2001)

(the corresponding sub-ecoregions are in brackets,)

1) Velebit Mountains in Croatia (Broadleaved mountainous forests, and Dinara conifers)

2) Kure Western mountains in Turkey (Deciduous and coniferous forests of north Anatolia)

3) Kroumirie-Mogod Forests in Tunisia (Deciduous and sclerophyllous forests of north Africa, and southern Iberian peninsula)

4) Sulcis Forests in Sardinia, Italy (Tyrrhrenian and Adriatic sclerophyllous forests).

5) Maures Massif in France (Broad-leaved and xerophyllous forests of north-east Spain and southern France).

6) Monchique-Caldeirao-Guadiana in the Algarve, Baixo Alentejo in Portugal (Sclerophyllous forests of south-west Iberian peninsula, and north-west Morocco).

7) Bou-Iblane-Moyen Atlas in Morocco (Coniferous mountain forests of north Africa and southern Spain.

8) Gudar Mountains in Spain (Coniferous mountain forests of centre and east Spain)

9) Taygetos Mountains in Greece (Mixed and coniferous mountain forests south of he Balkans).

10) Harissa Forests in Lebanon (Deciduous and coniferous mountain forests of south Anatolia and the Middle East)

Appendix 5

Distribution of haploid diversity in natural stands of Fagus sylvatica

(chloroplastic microsatellites; after G. VENDRAMIN et al, in preparation)

Distribution of haploid diversity in natural stands of Pinus halepensis

(Chloroplastic microsatellites; after G. VENDRAMIN et al, in preparation). The diameter of the circles is proportional to the haploid diversity value estimated in each population. The two arrows indicate the two centres of strong diversity.

Appendix 6

List of conifers present in Europe on the IUCN World List of Threatened Species (1998)

(after TUROK et al., 2000)

Key:

B1 = strongly fragmented
C1 = declining by at least 10% in the next 10 years
C2 = continuing decline
CR = critical danger
D1 = population < 50 individuals
D2 = reduced area
DD = data not available
EN = in danger
LR = small risk
Nt = could be endangered
VU = vulnerable

Appendix 7

Names of provenances sampled by country in the European Concerted Action

«European network for the evaluation of genetic resources of cork oak for appropriate use in breeding and gene conservation strategies».

Name of trials established by country in the European Concerted Action

«European network for the evaluation of genetic resources of cork oak for appropriate use in breeding and gene conservation strategies».

Appendix 8

References

Alptekin C.U, Bariteau M., Fabre J.P., 1997 Le Cèdre de Turquie: aire naturelle, insects ravageurs, perspectives d’utilisation pour les reboisements en France. Rev. For. Fr. XLIX (1), 19-31

Arbez M., 1994 Fondement et organisation des réseaux européens de conservation des ressources génétiques forestières Genet Sel Evol 26, Suppl 1, 301s-314s

Auclair L., 1996 L’appropriation communautaire des forêts dans le Haut-Atlas marocain Cah. Sci. Hum. 32 (1), 177-194

Bariteau M., 1992. Assistance au reboisement - République du Liban. Rapport d'expertise FAO - programme TCP/LEB/2251(T). FAO Rome. 28pp.

Clement V., 1999 Les milieux forestiers méditerranéens In: Les Milieux forestiers - aspects géographiques; coordination Jean-Jacques Dubois, Dossiers des images économiques du Monde, Dossier 25, SEDES, 183-204

Ducci F., Fabbio G., Manetti M.C., Piussi P., Motta R., Tosi V., 1999 Italy In: Research in Forest Reserves and Natural Forests in European countries. EFI Proceedings; Jari Parviainen et al. (eds), n° 16, 163-175

El Alami S.L., Sbay H., Petit R., Ouassou A., 1997 Contribution à l’étude de la variabilité enzymatique de six provenances marocaines de pin maritime (Pinus pinaster Ait.) In: Actes du séminaire sur l’Amélioration, la Conservation et l’Utilisation des Ressources Génétiques forestières Marocaines Salé (Maroc), 08 au 10 mai 1997 Ann. Rech. For. Maroc. (numéro spécial), 56-62

FAO, 1995 Conservation et utilisation durable des ressources phytogénétiques pour la Méditerranée. Rapport de synthèse sous-régional - annexe 1 du rapport de la réunion préparatoire sous-régionale pour la Méditerranée, Tunis, Tunisie 16-19 octobre 1995, 52pp

FAO, 1997 Directory of seed sources of the Mediterranean conifers, FAO Rome, 118pp.

Isik F., Keskin S., McKeand S.E., 2000 Provenance variation and provenance-site interaction in Pinus brutia Ten. Consequences of defining Breeding Zones. Silvae Genetica 49, 4-5, 213-223

Keys R.N., Autino A., Edwards K.J., Fady B., Pichot C., Vendramin G.G., 2000 Characterisation of nuclear microsatellites in Pinus halepensis Mill. and their inheritance in P. halepensis and Pinus brutia Ten. Molecular Ecology, 9, 2157-2159

Pichot C., El Maataoui M., Raddi S., Raddi P., 2001 Surrogate mother for endangered Cupressus Nature, vol 412, 39

Sagnard F., 2001 Dynamique de recolonisation des pinèdes pionnières par la hêtraie-sapinière. Etude de la structure des peuplements forestiers et de l’évolution génétique des populations de sapin pectiné (Abies alba Mill.) sur le Mont Ventoux. Thèse de Doctorat de l’université d’Aix Marseille III, INRA d’Avignon, 212pp.

Teissier du Cros E., Editor 2001 Forest Genetic Resources Management and Conservation. France as a Case Study. Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Bureau of Genetic Resources Commission of Forest Genetic Resources INRA DIC, Paris 60 pages

Turok J., Matyas Cs, Fady B., Borelli S., compilers, 2000 Conifers network, Report of First Meeting - 5-6 March 2000 - Brdo/Kranj, Slovenia. Intzernational plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome, Italy, 56pp.

WWF, 2001 Les Forêts de Méditerranée: une nouvelle stratégie de Conservation, WWF Rome, Italie, 24p