10. REGIONAL UPDATE FOR INDIA by M.K. Sharma^[11]

Introduction

The forestry sector in India has traditionally been one of the most organized sectors with, more than a century old efforts of scientific management. However, of late, like other sectors it has been facing several challenges among which rapid increase in human and livestock population, insufficient infrastructure and diversion of forest land for other developmental activities are important. In addition to this, there are several other issues, which are unique to forestry. These include inadequate public awareness about the multiple functions of forests, accounting distortions resulting in extreme undervaluation of forest contributions in the system of national accounts, continuing net disinvestment in forestry, inadequate participation of people and private sector, concealed subsidies causing distortions in utilization of resources, technological advancements, insufficiency of funds and facilities and conflicting roles and functions of public forest policies and administration.

India is rich in biodiversity because of its diverse physiography and climatic conditions falls in the confluence of three major bio-geographic realms, the Indo-Malayan, Eurasian and Afro-tropical and is one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries of the world. Moreover out of the 18 unique biodiversity hot-spots which are storehouses of nearly 50,000 species or about 20 per cent of the world’s flora, two are located in India i.e. north-eastern Himalayas and the western Ghats.

The country is divided into ten bio-geography zones:

(i) Trans-Himalayan; (ii) Himalayan; (iii) Indian deserts; (iv) semi arid areas; (v) western Ghats; (vi) deccan peninsula; (vii) Gangetic plain; (viii) north-east India; (ix) islands and; (x) coasts.

The ever increasing demand for forest products, forest population growth and poverty are putting great pressure on all resources including forests. The recorded forest area of the country is about 76.5 million ha (23% of the total geographical area). However, the tree cover is only about 64 million ha which is 19.45 % of total geographical area of the country, out of which 38.6 million ha has good forest cover having crown density of more than 40 %, 25 million ha is degraded with the crown density between 10 to 40% and some forests are virtually blank (Oberai, 1997). These forests are servicing one billion people out of which about 300 million are living in and around these forests and 170 million are daily drawing sustenance needs from these forests for their livelihood. Also 450 million cattle are directly dependent on bio-mass - of this 250 million are directly dependent on these forests. Wildlife resources are very rich and use these forests as their habitats. The per capita forest area in the country is 0.08 ha as compared to 0.82 ha in Pakistan, 1.02 ha in Malaysia and the world average of 0.64 ha. (Table 1).

Table- I Forest Resources of Selected Asian Countries

Continued population growth and urbanization; higher rates of economic growth and trade liberalization over the period 1990-95 has resulted in deforestation in most of the countries in the Asian region. Natural resources, which are vital for food, livelihood and environmental security, are under intense pressure. The challenges of their conservation and sustainable use remain enormous. Circumstances warrant integration of environmental issues with strategies of poverty alleviation.

The land base per person is shrinking, posing the challenge of maintaining the soil health while obtaining more and more from less and less area and quality of land. Soil erosion accelerates greenhouse effect (on a global scale, it causes emission of 1.14 billion tons of carbon to the atmosphere every year). The task is to reverse land degradation under the present patterns of land use, biotic pressure, state of technology and investment.

The major task before the country is to rehabilitate the degraded forests and to enhance the area under forest/tree cover to 33% of total area as envisaged in the National Forest Policy, 1988. Though continuous efforts are being made, but due to ever increasing demands of forest products and limitation in funds availability (less than 1% of the total Plan allocation) the desired results are far from satisfactory. To reverse the process of degradation and to achieve the goal of the National Forestry Policy, 1988, the government have formulated the National Forestry Action Programme (NFAP), a comprehensive strategic plan to address the key issues underlying the major problems of the forestry sector in line with the National Forest Policy, 1988.

Forest Policy

The first forest policy in India was formulated in 1894. This policy was based on the desire that forests serve agricultural interests more directly than before. The salient features of this policy were as below:

• The sole object of forest management is to providing public benefit.

• The forests situated on hill slopes should be maintained as protection forests to preserve the climatic and physical conditions of the country and to protect the cultivated plains that lie below them from the devastating action of hill torrents.

• The forests, which are the reservoirs of vulnerable timbers, should be managed on commercial lines as a source of revenue to the states.

• The forests that yield only inferior timber, fuel-wood, fodder or, are used for grazing should be managed mainly in the interest of the local population.

• Wherever an effective demand for cultivable land exists and can only be supplied from forest area, the land should ordinarily be relinquished subject to reasonable forest requirements.

National Forest Policy, 1952

The new policy recognized the protective role of forests and discarded the notion that forestry has no intrinsic right to land. It stipulated that the country should aim at having at least one-third of its total land under forests, a proportion of 20% to be attained in the plains and 60% in the mountainous regions. It proposed the classification of forests on a functional basis into protection forests, national forests, village forests and tree-lands.

It also made provision for ensuring progressively increasing supplies of grazing, timber for agricultural implements and firewood to release cattle-dung for use as manure. The policy emphasized the need for affording protection to wildlife by its proper management for scientific study and for recreational purposes.

The policy laid stress on (a) weaning the tribal people, by persuasion, away from the baneful practice of shifting cultivation; (b) increasing the efficiency of forest administration by having adequate forest laws; (c) giving requisite training to the staff of all ranks; (d) providing adequate facilities for the management of forests and for conducting research in forestry and forest products utilization; (e) controlling grazing in the forest; and (f) the need for promoting the welfare of the people.

National Forest Policy, 1988

The current policy marks a major departure from the 1952 Forest Policy as regards emphasis on conservation and meeting the local needs as well as people’s participation in protection and management. The policy sets a national goal to have a minimum of one-third of the total land area of the country under forest or tree cover. A massive need-based and time bound programme of afforestation and tree planting, with particular emphasis on fuel-wood and fodder development, on all degraded and denuded lands in the country, whether forest or non-forest land is a national imperative.

The policy recognizes the symbiotic relationship between the tribals and forests. Their domestic requirements of fuel-wood, fodder, minor forest produce and construction timber should be the first charge on forest produce. Similar considerations should be given to Scheduled Castes and other poor living near forests.

Shifting cultivation with ever reducing cycle is affecting the environment and productivity of land adversely. Alternative avenues of income, suitably harmonized with the right land use practices, should be devised to discourage shifting cultivation. Forest should be protected against fire, encroachment and grazing.

The policy stipulates that forest based industry should raise the raw material needed for meeting its own requirements, preferably by establishment of a direct relationship between the factory and the individuals who can grow the raw material by supporting the individuals with inputs including credit, constant technical advice and finally harvesting and transport services.

Forestry should be recognized both as a scientific discipline as well as a profession. Agricultural universities and institutions should impart academic education and promote post-graduate research and professional excellence, to fulfill the requirements of forestry sector. The policy lays emphasis on scientific forestry research to face the new challenges of forestry sector. The policy also underlines the need for willing support and cooperation of the people in forest conservation and extension programme. It is essential, therefore, to inculcate in the people, a direct interest in forests, their development and conservation and to make them conscious of the values of trees, wildlife and nature in general.

Future Demand and Supply of Forest Products

Despite overall economic growth, poverty, hunger and malnutrition persists in parts of the World and among various sectors of the population due to uneven distribution of wealth and access to resources. Forests do and will continue to play an important role in providing products and income. This is particularly important because presently mankind is dependent for food and animal produce on limited source of plants and animals. This narrow base on which the mankind is dependent, needs to be widened, for which strategies like in-situ and ex-situ conservation methods have to be developed. Conservation of biological diversity has to be based on principles of genetics, breeding, pathology and evolution through traditional and modern practices, so that long term flexibility of diverse biological material can be retained.

Plant Diversity of Use in India

N.B (It is likely that some of the species are being used for more than one economic value)

Source: IV International Congress of Ethnobiology, Lucknow (India, 1994)

This is because the genetic architecture of forest trees species are poorly known, and the breeding process are slow, and wide variations in ecological and economic environments must be anticipated to use the available genetic variation efficiently.

To develop, future forests, the genetic resources of forest trees must be conserved and developed, whether they exist as trees in planted or protected conservation stands or as seeds or tissue cultures in storage (or one day possibly as DNA Libraries). Managing forest genetic resources involves developing overall strategies, applying specific methodologies, developing new techniques, and global efforts.

The resources are important to agriculture, forestry, fisheries and industry and thus keeping in view of legal political economic and social issues the management has to be stratified, as they are imperative to our global sustainable development. Indian Council of Forestry Research & Education, (ICFRE) earlier known as FRI, Dehradun, established in the year 1906 the pioneer and leading organizations in India for its excellency in forestry research has formulated the following strategies for improving the forest genetic resource in India. List of the priority species identified in India for FAO coordinated activities and list of the priorities species state wise and different eco-zones wise is given in Annexure 2, 3 4 & 5).

• Formulation of the uses and status of forest genetic resources.

• Examine, develop and apply the in-situ and ex-situ methods for the conservation of forest genetic resources.

• Assess the current germplasm conservation activity for forest genetic resources.

• Establish in-situ reserve and ex-situ conservation stands for broad range of species because of the long generation times usually needed to obtain reproductively mature trees.

• Promote research to develop and apply methods of ex-situ storage to those species, for which current technologies are not suitable and in particular, for those species endangered in natural environment.

• Application of ex-situ technologies for seeds pollen and tissue storage, including cryogenic storage.

• Ex-situ maintenance, evaluation, testing and breeding technologies to enhance the preservation and use of conserved germplasm.

• Inventory of forest genetic resources at the regional and local level, particularly with respect to the distribution of natural populations.

• Promote integration of conservation activities with testing and breeding programs.

• Assemble, analyze, and disseminate information about conservation efforts and programs for use as a base on which to build further activities in tree germplasm conservation.

• Identify the major problems in implementing action, including coordination, information dissemination and training.

• Recommend future action to solve or alleviate technical problems.

• Present a global strategy for conserving and managing forest tree genetic resources.

Forest Productivity

As per the Forest Resources Assessment 1990 (FAO, 1995), the 1990 situation of the natural forest of India, was as follows:

Comparison of productivity

Source: FAO 1995

The State of Forest Report 1997 of FSI estimates that the total forest growing stock in India (including natural forest plantation and areas other than natural forests) is 4,740 million cu.mand the annual increment on growing stock is 87.62 million cu.m of this about 60 percent (52.62 million cu.m) is estimated to be timber and 40 percent (35 million cu.m) fuelwood. This represents approximately 1.3 cu.m. of growth per hectare per year, compared to the global average of 2.1 cu.m./ha/year. Average growing stock per hectare is estimated as 74.42 cu.m. The FSI report also notes that in about 53 per cent of natural forest, natural regeneration is either absent or inadequate. This situation is mainly due to overgrazing and fire in forest many fold than its carrying capacity. This has troublesome implication on future growth.

Factors Influencing Productivity

For a given or forest type, productivity is the function of habitat factors i.e. soil nutrient status, rainfall, and silvicultural management practices. Productivity with respect to forest can be expressed in terms of mean annual increment (MAI). A natural forest with a continuous cycle of growth, grows on the products of its own decay (humus), through nutrient recycling. Productivity is influenced by special factors like removal or retention of litter, status of ground vegetation, density of stock on which further growth is to take place and protection from growth retarding agents.

It is understood that the MAI of natural forest tend to be lower than plantation forest raised with high level of inputs. However, the potential biological productivity of the natural forest of India is definitely higher than the figures mentioned earlier indicate. Using, Paterson’s index, and based on rainfall, soil condition and length of growth period, estimated productivity of these forest would range from 1.35 cu.m/ha/yr in the dry regions of India to 7.66 cu.m/ha/yr in the moist/wet regions, with most other parts of the country capability of producing around 4 to 5 cu.m./ha/yr.

Role of ICFRE in Forestry Research

Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), a autonomous body under Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India, with its eight research institutes including Forest Research Institute, (FRI), Dehradun and three advanced center in various parts of the country cater the needs of different bio-geographical regions of the nation to increase the productivity through Genetic and Silvicultural improvement, treatment of wasteland and conservation of forest ecosystems.

The Council has embarked upon the challenging task of not only averting the crisis but also bringing the country’s ecosystems back on rail. Towards the desired goals, the following priority areas for research have been identified:

• Develop mitigation strategies in forestry sector to reduce and store green house gases.

• Research on upland watershed management (integrated soil and water conservation to check siltation and water scarcity and boost afforestation).

• Research on reforestation of degraded lands and problem soils (barren/mined/waste/water-logged/salt affected lands, etc).

• Research on conservation, protection and sustainable development of existing forests to conserve biodiversity.

• Increasing productivity of existing forests and future plantations through:

  - high quality seed production.

  - production and multiplication of site matched planting stock.

  - species/varieties improvement using traditional breeding methods and biotechnology.

  - biological rejuvenation of lands using mycorrhizae and other useful micro-organisms.

• Research on multipurpose trees in farming systems.

• Research on improved utilization, including improved recovery and processing of traditional wood and paper products.

• Research on non-wood forest products which provide sustenance to the people and supply raw materials to a large number of forest based industries.

• Research on modern tools, equipments, techniques and operations for afforestation, logging and extraction of forest produce.

• Protection of forest from entomological and pathological problems.

• Socio-economic research for motivating farmers/land owners to adopt tree farming in a manner similar to crop based farming.

Research on policy strategies and combination of measures desired for enlarging area under forest including studies on property rights and land tenure, culture and gender issues involved in conservation, non-timber products, effects of tariff and non-tariff trade barriers, legal and regulatory setting for forestry and other laws regulating tree felling, transportation and sale.

Role of Regional Centers of ICFRE

The Regional Institutes under the ICFRE coordinates the genetic resource activities in their respective State. The activity includes-

• Assess the regional status of forest genetic resource and develop priorities for their conservation

• Facilitate information and germplasm exchange within the region and act as liaison to program outside the region

• Develop training program that focus on the species and technical needs important to the region; and

• Foster cooperative research program to address regionally specific problems by supplying funds and sponsoring meeting, workshop or symposia.

Developing an International Forest Genetic Resource Programme

Under the International genetic resource program ICFRE is managing the collection, documentation, evaluation and use of tree genetic resource already available in India. Also interacting in the International Board of Planting Genetic Resources (IBPGR), Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nation, CIRAD, DANIDA, DESC, FRED, FORTIP, WB-P, and UNDP, in promoting various Research in India.

Present Level of Production and Use of Genetically Superior Propagules

During the last five yeas the plantation activity is carried out annually to the extent of 1.5 million hectares and it is expected to rise over 3.0 million hectares by 2003 A.D. Though various species are planted, 90 percent of the plantation programmes consist of Bamboo, Eucalyptus, Acacia, Albizia, Prosopis juliflora, Prosopis cineraria, Dalbergia sissoo, conifers and teak. During the late eighties and early nineties annually 3x10⁹ plants were planted. Of these certain percentage of seeds are obtained from seed production areas (SPAs). There is a total of 3100 ha of SPA for teak and 900 ha of clonal seed orchard (CSO) for teak. The seeds from these would suffice for 30-35 per cent of the requirements. Similarly, for conifers there are nearly 8000 ha of identified seed stands (not seed production areas). For Dalbergia sissoo 24.6 ha of SPA and for eucalyptus 91 ha is available. For various other species which from small requirements of local nature, seeds are collected from respective SPA. From 3,100 ha SPA of teak, an estimated 1,55,000 kg seeds are available. With germination percent of 35 and survival of 60, little over 16,000 hectares can be planted with these seeds. The clonal seed orchards produce much less than the expected amount per tree. Often many clones flower at different times resulting in poor seed setting. On the average of 30 kg of seeds are collected per ha. From 900 ha of clonal seed orchards of Teak in the country 27,000 kg are collected which is sufficient for 3,000 ha with 30 percent germination and 60 percent survival. While establishing clonal seed orchards, it is essential to consider the need for synchronous flowering. This aspect is being looked into for improving the seed production in clonal seed orchards by Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding (IFGTB), Coimbatore.

For Dalbergia sissoo, out of 24 ha of seed production area around 300 kg of seed may be obtained sufficient to plant 9000 hectares. There are 90 hectares of seed production area for all the eucalyptus put together providing 450 kg of seeds sufficient to plant, 40,000 hectares. The work out for conifers is not reliable as most of the area is classified as seed stands, much of it un-culled. The yield of seeds from tree to tree is highly variable. Though large amount of bamboo seeds are collected, all cannot be classified as superior seeds. Also, they are collected in bulk when the entire plantation flowers. Subsequently, for many years there may not be any collections at all.

It is thus obvious from the foregoing that teak constitutes largest collection from seed production areas significant quantity for eucalyptus and Dalbergia sissoo is also collected. The annual planting in the country is slightly over 3020 million seedlings of this 180 million seedlings mainly consisting of teak, Dalbergia sissoo and Eucalyptus come from seed production areas, which works out to nearly 6 percent.

Future Requirement of Superior Propagules

India being a vast country like a sub-continent with varying climatic and edaphic conditions has a variety of vegetation. The cultural diversity coupled with traditional practices has made the people highly depended on various types of local vegetation. Therefore, the preferences for different species vary considerably. This results in a dilemma for choice of species when the sociological aspects are considered. Various state forest departments independent of Union of India a Sovereign Democratic Republic having Federal and State political structure have developed strategies to grow species as per their own requirements, in addition to other species, which is required in large quantities. With the economic liberalization the national level wood based aw material requirement for 2000 A.D. would be around 65 million cu.m. There is expected to be great demand for news print, rayon grade pulp, plywood, matchwood, sports goods wood etc. the demand for packing cases which is presently around 7 million cu. mtrs. is expected to rise sharply. The present annual planting is around 1.5 million ha. and the number of seedlings planted around 30000 million. By 2003 A.D. The annual planting target is expected to be little over 3 million ha. consisting mainly of bamboos, Eucalyptus, Acacia, Albizia, Prosopis, Casuarina, Dalbergia, Conifers and teak. An additional one million ha will be planted with medicinal plants and ornamental, which is not discussed in this report. The projected requirement of tree seedlings is of the order of 6,160 million of which around 23.5 percent is expected to be raised from seed production area of certified seed sources and around 15 percent is expected to be raised from genetically improved material. Fifty percent of the teak will be coming from seed production areas and 25 percent from genetically improved stock. Likewise, it is expected to provide genetically improved stock to the extent of 25 percent in case of Eucalyptus. In case of Acacias and Albizia not less than 30 percent of the seeds will be collected from identified/certified seed sources. In case of Casuarina and Dalbergia sissoo 20 and 10 percent, respectively, will be made available from genetically improved plants. There is every possibility that in these two species the amount of seeds available from the genetically improved plants may double as rapid tree improvement in these species is in progress. In case of conifers, however, 20 percent of the seeds would be collected from seed production areas and the genetically improved seed may not be more than 2 percent. The detail presented above is based on the annual planting achievements by different states, 28 in numbers, their field strength of tree improvement programmes in terms of SPA, CSO and SSO and the organizational structure being developed for tree improvement. Data published by Ministry of Environment and Forest and Forest Survey of India, Government of India was used. It is thus obvious from the foregoing that considerable amount of planting stock would be derived from quality stock material. In terms of percentage it may seem to be less, however, in terms of actual quantity it is enormous and the forest departments and the research institutes have committed themselves to fulfill these targets.

Table - II Projected quantity of seeds required including the improved seeds

All figures are in kilograms in parenthesis percentage

Table-III Projected requirements of different planting materials by 2000 A.D.

Research and Development in Genetic Resource

With a view to improving the productivity, profitability and an attractive land use option, ICFRE has been implementing a major research and development project with main thrust on genetic improvement of planting stock and improvement package of practices with various other ongoing research. Major gains in productivity of Casuarina, Poplar, Teak, Eucalyptus have been achieved in a short time span through application of vegetative propagation and cloning techniques with gainful exploitation of existing useful variation and development/deployment of locality specific, high yielding, forest growing and disease resistant clones. Methodology adopted has been selection of candidate plus trees with most desirable qualities and cloning of the candidate plus trees (CPTs) through rooting of juvenile coppice shoots under controlled environment in the green house.

Vegetative propagation and cloning techniques exploit full productivity potential of superior genotypes. However, no further enhancement of productivity or improvement of genetic qualities of selected clones is possible. In order to develop still better clones than the best available presently and for widening the genetic base of clonal plantations, following research and development priorities have been identified and same are being carried in the various institutions of ICFRE with significant achievements.

• Selection of candidate plus trees for cloning for development and deployment of new clones for various species.

• Development of intra - specific hybrids through controlled pollination between clones.

• Development of clonal seed orchards for production of improved genetically superior seed for future plantations.

• Further improvement of technical packages of practices for field plantations and Clonal nurseries.

Tree improvement work in India began as early as 1960s. It got an impetus with the formation of ICFRE. Since one of the mandate of the Council is to increase the productivity of the forest from 0.7 m^2/ha/yr to at least 2.5 m^3/ha/yr, different institutes in various States examined the various strategies for improving the quality of the planting stock which would help in improving productivity on per ha. basis. Thus, the institutes have geared to bring about tree improvement by developing seed production area, seedling seed orchards, Clonal seed orchards, vegetative propagation techniques, and mass multiplication approaches. The species for different institutions (Table. IV) have been defined and strategies have been worked out on a time frame basis in collaboration with State Forest Department and State Forest Research Wings.

Table - IV Priority species for different states for Planting Stock Improvement Programme

Production of quality planting stock linked with work on plus trees, SPA, SSO, CSO & VMG for the identified species is underway. ICFRE has established the following seed Production Areas, Clonal Seed Orchard, Seedling Seed Orchard and Vegetative Multiplication Garden of various species in the different part of the country.

Table -V State wise Planting Stock Improvement of Priorities species under ICFRE.

Provenance Trial

The need for provenance testing arose to maintain a broad base of genetic material for tree improvement strategies and screening of superior planting stock for plantation programme. Provenance testing was considered basic to extensive breeding work. Since the thumb rule in forestry is to use a local seed source until some other provenance is proven better.

The provenance trial on two important native species viz. Tectona grandis and Pinus roxburghii was intimated by Late Prof. M. L. Laurie and Sir Harry champion, respectively, when they were silviculturists at FRI, Dehradun. Provenance trial on teak was laid out during 1928-30 in a number of locations in India. The tests on Teak and Chir pine have yielded useful information.

International provenance trial of Tectona grandis and Gmelina arborea were established in different states in India in collaboration with the DANIDA, forest seed centre. The ICFRE initiated national level provenance experiments on Tectona grandis, Pinus roxburghii and Bombax ceiba. ICFRE has also collaborated in International provenance testing of eucalyptus particularly Eucalyptus tereticornis, E. camaldulensis, and E. grandis. Trials were also laid for Acacias and tropical pines like Pinus ocarpa, P. caribaea and P. kesiya etc. Technical input extended to state forest department to lay out provenance test of species of interest like E. grandis, E. globulus.

Provenance trials for different species, particularly Teak, Eucalyptus and tropical Pines were taken two to three decades ago in Andhra Pradesh. Tropical pine species and provenance trials were initiated in Andhra Pradesh as early as 1961 and intensified during 1965-80 period at various test sites in and around Araka, Paderu, Chintapalli, and Maredimilli. Provenance trials of other species like Gmelina arborea, Dalbergia sissoo, Casuarina equestifolia were also undertaken by A.P. Forest Department apart from Teak and Eucalyptus. Teak provenance trials were initiated in 1967 in Medipally, Karimnagar District, before A.P. state became a participant in international provenance trials, specially of Eucalyptus in 1983. State Silviculturists established provenance trials of E. camaldulensis and E. tereticornis and species trials of several Eucalyptus through the provenance supplied to Eucalyptus Research Centre of FRI at Hyderabad in early sixties.

The provenance trials have been further systematized since last five years by ICFRE. Different institutes conduct both national and international provenance trials in collaboration with State Forest Departments and International agencies. The details are given in Table-VI

Table- VI Details of Provenance trial established at various state by ICFRE.

Plus Trees

Superior plus trees were selected having desirable combinations of phenological characteristics. Various characters were used for scoring points to select the trees, to be classified as candidate plus trees. The selection intensity was of the order of 1:30,000 in a population. The purpose of selecting such trees was to collect seeds for progeny tests and buds for development of local seed orchards and mass multiplication through tissue culture so that adequate clonal population was built up as base for tree breeding programme. In addition to the already existing plus trees, more selections were done with the help of State Forest Departments. All the institutes are maintaining plus tree registers for different species. The largest number of plus trees was selected for teak followed by P. roxburghii, D. sissoo and Neem. The list of plus tree maintained for different states in these institutes is presented in Table -VII.

Table- VII Details of Plus trees selected in various states by ICFRE Institutes

Seed Orchards

Seed orchards contribute greatly in production of quality planting stock of the desired species. A clonal Teak seed orchard established at Walayar, Kerala consists of 20 superior genotypes from Tamilnadu, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh and is providing superior seeds for improvement programs. Similarly clonal seed orchard of Teak consisting 80 clones collected from superior genotypes from different States and seed orchard of Bombax ceiba, Casuarina equestifolia and Bamboos have been established at TFRI, Jabalpur. An excellent clonal seed orchard for sandal has been established at Gottipura by IWST, Bangalore. The seeds are made available to progressive planters and also used for development of demonstration plantation of Sandal. Seed orchards established in different states are given in Table- V and Table VIII.

Table - VIII Clonal Seed Orchard of State Forest Department

++ Teak Clones and Grafts are in numbers

Seed Production Areas

Much of the work of seed production areas is concentrated on teak with over 3,000 ha being worked out in close collaboration with different State Forest Departments and ICFRE institutions. Different institutions evolved methods for demarcation and selection of trees in the SPAs so that trees with desirable characteristics are retained. The method for establishment of SPAs has been developed by the respective institutions and the details provided to the State Forest Departments. State wise information of seed production areas is given in Table V (Annexure - I).

Vegetative Propagation and Clone Bank Establishment

Vegetative propagation has been the effective method for tree improvement as it captured both additive and non-additive genetic variance. Using vegetative propagation technique it is possible to produce true to type plants and quickly established clone banks, provided, the plants do not show recalcitrancy to rooting and plageotropism in growth. Use of juvenile material or inducing juvenility in adult material greatly contributed to the success of establishing clonal lines. Different institutes have identified number of species for vegetative propagation to establish clonal bank and mass multiplication for multi locational trials for distribution to user agencies. The details of species have been presented in Table- V. Now ICFRE is in position to produce and supply good quality planting stock of D. sissoo, E. tereticornis, E. camaldulensis, C. equestifolia, Poplars and Teak. Different institutions are continuously adding more and more clones with defined characteristics and are also exchanging clonal material with various State Forest Department.

Tissue Culture for Mass Propagation

Research on tissue culture of trees was initiated in Late 1970s with emphasis on Teak and Eucalyptus for which protocols were developed. The institutes under ICFRE have taken up a number of species for mass multiplication through tissue culture, to produce adequate number of good quality planting stock. Good numbers of studies were also taken on mass multiplication of different Bamboos, including edible Bamboos, and several thousands of plantlets have been transferred to the field. The technique is used in conjunction with selection strategies so that the material produced is of high quality.

Seed Bank and Seed Exchange

Program for production of quality planting stock involved tree selection, seed collection, Storage and distribution, not only within the region but also to the regions wherein the species was of interest. Seed exchange is already in progress for Neem, Casuarina, Eucalyptus and Bamboos. ICFRE institutes have developed modern techniques for genetic conservation to improve the planting stock like storage of seeds, pollen, storage by in-vitro methods, growth limitation, cryopreservation and molecular approach to genetic conservation. Seed certification methods are also being done for transport of seeds within and outside the country.

In addition to the above under UNDP-ICFRE project, strengthening and developing of ICFRE, the following have been achieved for planting stock improvement. Identification and location of 10,000 ha of seed production area. Main species identified are Dalbergia sissoo, Tectona grandis, Acacia nilotica, Cedrus deodara, Gamelina arborea, Pinus spp. Azadirachta indica, Eucalyptus spp. Casuarina, Dipterocarpus macrocarpus, Sandal, Bamboo, Fir, Spruce, Khair, etc.

• More than 50,000candidate plus trees of Dalbergia sissoo, Gamelina arborea, Tectona grandis, Shorea assamica, Phoebe goalparens, Bombax ceiba, Acacia spp, Azadirachta indica, Eucalyptus grandis, E. terticornis, Santalum album, Albizia lebbeck have been identified.

• 198 ha of clonal and seedling seed orchards of Techtona grandis, Santalum album, Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia nilotica, Azadirachta indica, Casuarina equisetifolia, Gmelina arborea, Pinus roxburghii, Populus deltoides have been developed by ICFRE Institutes.

Specific Issues

Medicinal Plants: Poor man’s medicines

In India, medicinal plants are widely used by all sections of the population, and over 7,500 species of plants are alone estimated (AICEP, 1994) to be used by the ecosystem people" who belong to some of ethnic communities (Anthropological survey of India, 1994)

Presently 75 different plant - derived secondary metabolites are in use and the medicines made from them represent a fraction of slightly more than 5% of the total. Substances most frequently used in medical preparations are cardiac glycosides, theophylline, vincamine, atropine, pilocarpine codeine and scopolamine. Additionally lot of important steroid compounds and hormones are derived semisynthetically from plant precursors. India probably has the oldest, richest and most diverse, cultural traditions in the use of medicinal plants in all systems of health care.

Exploring of forest based plant products for new pharmaceutical and ever increasing demand for medicinal plants is increasing in both developing and developed countries (WHO) especially among youth (Fransworth and Soejarto, 1991) and surprisingly the bulk of the material traded is still from wild harvested sources on forest lands and very small number of species are cultivated. The expanding trade in medicinal plants has serious implications on the survival of several plant species, with many under threat to become extinct. Today this rich biodiversity of medicinal plants are facing serious resource threat because of the rapid loss of natural habitats, and overexploitation of medicinal plants from the wild. To meet the demands of the Indian herbal industry which has annual turnover of about US$300 million (ADMA, 1996), tons of medicinal plants are being harvested every year from some of 165,000 ha of forests (FRLHT, 1997).

To meet the raw material demand for local other countries demand and to conserve the natural population ICFRE and various research organization in India including notable like TIBGER, ICAR institutes, INMR are working on various biotechnological methods for plant improvement studies like selection of desirable traits, increase of variability, achievement of homozygosity and introduction of new genes into cultivators(Trangenes) Further new methods for mass production of elite plants for raw material production. Cryopreservation is an important method for undifferentiated cultures. This method is followed in many research centers in India to preserve the plant cells.

Including India Most countries have little or no regulations controlling the collection of material from the wild. India is one exception and has banned export of several threatened wild species in the form of raw material although the export of finished products containing the material is selectively allowed. A legal instrument known as Biodiversity Conservation Bill is under the process of legislation in the Parliament. An estimated 70-90% of the medicinal plant material imported into Germany is wild harvested (Table- A & B) and very few species among these are currently propagated on a large scale (Lange, 1996) by in-situ or ex-situ cultivation.

Table - A medicinal plant exported to Germany in Tonnes.

Table - B The 12 leading countries export medicinal plants listed according to average volumes corresponding to the years 1992-1995.

Sources: UNCTAD COMTRADE database, International Trade Centre, Geneva, Switzerland

Table - C List of species banned from export by the Ministry of Commerce (vide notifiction.47(PN)/92-97 dated 30 march 1994

A significant percentage of medicinal plant material is used to make plan extracts. India has started producing plant extracts since 1992, and supplies companies such Amgen, Bristol-Myers, Squibb and Fujisawa with vincristine and vinblastine from Cantharanthus roseus (Sophie, 1997).

Conservation Implications of medicinal plant

It is evident that trade in medicinal plant has serious implications on the survival of species. If one considers the material exported to developed countries and the material collected for indigenous use certainly the survival of many species may well be under threat, given the increasing demand for medicinal plants. There are number of reasons as to why the trade in wild harvested material has been left to reach such a critical point is that the legislation that exists to control harvesting and trade of medicinal plants is inadequate and ineffective in its current form; new policies and easier mechanisms to control the trade are needed. Lack of awareness among many of the end users, as to the extend to which wild harvested materials are used; indeed, it is only the last five to ten years that wild harvesting has become a subject of concern. In an attempt to control the market, the traders will give virtually no information on the extent of wild-harvesting. It has become absolutely essential to apply process of sustainable harvesting immediately to these species.

The bio-diversity loss is not only a threat to ecology of the planet but a more immediate threat to the livelihood security of rural communities Thus the developing countries are put under tremendous pressure to adopt intellectual property rights (IPR) regimes that accord with the standards which now prevail in North America, Europe, Japan.

It is well under stood that bio-technology cannot replace the present need but endangered plant species can be protected in their natural environment, and establishment of botanical garden, gene-bank to conserve the genes and techniques of sustainable harvesting will certainly help to conserve the natural resources. Since the beginning of this century more than half of the worlds tropical forest area has been destroyed and today more than 11 ha of tropical forest are lost every day, and the experts estimate that only 5-10% of all plants in the world have been systematically investigated for their pharmacological activity and many of them are uninveticated and are threatened in the tropical forest. Strong strategies in terms of conservation through biotechnology and legal support need to be evolved.

ICFRE Institutes have established herbaria, and medicinal plant gardens and packages for cultivation of economically important medicinal plants. With modern techniques including tissue culture, and genetic engineering work is in progress for mass multiplication of important medicinal plants. Various institute under ICFRE are working on species specific for conservation of germplasm.

Bamboo diversity in India: The poor man’s timber

India is the second richest country in Bamboo genetic resources after China. These countries together hold more than half the total bamboo wealth distributed all over the world. India has a rich diversity of bamboo genetic resources. Bahadur & Jain (1983) reported 113 species of bamboo belonging to 22 genera where as Sharma (1980) repotted nearly 136 species of bamboos occurring in India. 58 species of bamboo belonging to 10 genera are distributed in North-eastern States alone. The forest area over which bamboos occur in India, on a conservative estimate is 9.57 million hectares, which constitutes about 12.8% of total area under forests. (Bahadur and verma, 1980) Out of 22 genera in India 19 are indigenous and 3 exotic.

Need for collection and conservation of Germplasm

With the increased population pressure, natural stands of bamboo are being indiscriminately cut for fuel-wood and furniture and for obtaining cultivable lands. The common practice of jhum cultivation in the North-eastern States with ever reducing cycle has resulted in genetic erosion of several bamboo species, also over exploitation of some species for fuel wood and in the cottage industry has endangered others. Since natural variation is the basic genetic material required for selection and improvement, conservation of available genetic resource needs to be accorded the highest priority. Efforts have been taken by the National Bureau of Plant Genetics Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi and its stations in Trichur, Shillong and Ranchi, ICFRE and ICAR (Indian Council of agricultural and Research) in India to collect and build up genetic diversity of Bamboo for evaluation and maintenance. Germplasm collections are being established for genetic evaluation at ICFRE, NBPGR and in ICAR.

Assessment of Bamboo Resources

Assessment of bamboo involves information on the extent of area over which bamboo species occurs, their density/stocking and their extent and proportion, total availability. But such information have not been made in any country, except when their availability has to be known for establishing paper and pulp industries. Ground or serial survey either does the assessment because generally the assessment is upset by subsequent gregarious flowering and death of bamboo clumps following rotational seeding cycle. Thus the extent of availability of bamboo resources has to be determined precisely in the countries of the Asia Pacific for developing sustainable resource management strategies.

Strategies for Conservation

Where ever the large areas of Natural bamboo reserves occur it has been declared as National Bamboo Reserve area and the provenance in natural habitats are being maintained Considering the limitations of seed, vegetative methods of ex situ conservation, tissue culture work has been started in Asian countries. The excellent work on Bamboo micropropagation by Metha et al (1982) in Delhi University using seeds of Bombs arundinacea resulted in callus, which differentiated into many embryiods. These regenerate into plantlets in vitro. This has laid foundation for bamboo micropropagation and in vitro conservation as it. is a quick method and enable high multiplication rates. ICFRE has perfected the Micropropagation techniques for commercial mass multiplication and also developed technology for Macropropagation of bamboo and transferred to the user for mass multiplication. Kerala Forest Research Institute(KFRI) at Kerala has a Bamboo Information Center(BIC) for disseminating all relevant information on 136 species Indian Bamboo.

ICFRE has taken up the systematic work on bamboo research under its various research institute at different agro-ecological regions of the country. The work is coordinated by the Chief Technical adviser with the main objective to work on quick-growing annual, biennial and perennial bamboos suitable for cottage and paper industries and collection and maintenance of various genetic resources.

State wise bamboo Growing stock and potential yield

*Bamboo in metric tone
** Bamboos in Numbers
Source: State Forest Department, 1995,1996.

Bamboos are aptly called the poor mans timber and are found in greatest abundance. Asian foresters also call it the Timber for Twenty First Century. Their strength, straightness, lightness combined with extra-ordinary hardness,range in size, abundance, easy propagation and the short period in which they attain maturity, make them suitable for a variety of purposes. This fascinating plant biodiversity has to be conserved, not just for financial terms access to our biogenetic raw materials but more importantly to engage creatively in the revitalization of traditional sciences and technologies, and to use their fruits for the benefit of our own people and share them on fair terms with the rest of the world.

Forestry Extension

Forestry Extension program is playing a vital role in connecting research institutes with the end users through transfer of technology, extension support to State Forest Departments, NGOs, etc. Research collaboration with various organizations and establishment of synergic linkage is also before with user groups.

The extension had done in two ways process. On one hand tested technologies and Scientific information is transferred to the users and on the other hand, requirement of users is ascertained for evolving research priorities and keep abreast to researchers with the field realities. The extension methodologies presently adopted are through demonstration on the field, extension materials like film, videos, brochures, hand arts, and exhibition, through workshops, seminars and conferences, and by personnel contacts. The choice of methodology depends upon the nature of technology and client group. ICFRE has identified satellite technology demonstration, extension center such as Govt. Institute, non-governmental organizations. Renowned science and technology industries in India, was dissimulate technologies developed for public awareness. Under UNDP program 6315 forest personnel, NGOs, farmers, school and University students, children, landless and unemployed rural youth have been trained in identification and inoculation of VAM fungi and rhizobia. Introduction of bio-fertilizers has been done in 57 nurseries by different Institutes. The trained personnel will be carrying out further extension in newly acquired skills. 17,522 farmers, 687 NGOs, 5700 foresters, 693 student, 486 teachers, 53 fisherman, 674 women, 204 rural unemployed youths have been trained in seed technology and plantation management with genetically superior materials.

Public Awareness/Transfer of Technology

The conservation of natural resources can only come from a number of steps involving people’s participation.

• Reviving relevant traditional systems and creating stakes for participants.

• Channelising benefits of resource conservation to local people.

• Formerly involving people at all levels of decision-making, and

• Encouraging mass public awareness and education.

Improved package of practices for ensuring best planting stock and nursing of plants in the shade houses and open nurseries have been standardized through intensive research. Root trainer and potting media for various species is a break-through in obtaining the quality planting stock. Prophylactic and control measures against common pest and disease have been identified and effective control measures for few species worked out.

Developing Regional and National Programs

ICFRE, under the research priority setting has developed comprehensive national capabilities for conserving forest tree genetic resources in collaborating all the State Forestry research units, SFD, Universities, NGOs’ other councils like ICARI, etc., by funding certain important research and to improve the teaching facilities under following activities are being coordinated.

• Develop national policies for genetic conservation of trees and establish priority activities.

• Monitor the status of tree species that are economic, ecological or aesthetic importance

• Develop programs for implementing in-situ and ex-situ management & conservation of tree germplasm to ensure the genetic diversity that exists in the country.

• Develop program to promote the flow of conserved materials from storage to testing and breeding programs.

• Promote and support training and research for forestry research organization in tree germplasm conservation at Universities, Colleges, experimental stations, SFD, and Institutes and in the private sector.

• Support programs to maintain data related to forest genetic resource activities and promote the evaluation and use of tree germplasm to meet national needs. List of priority species identified is presented in Annex 7& 8

Training

To provide latest training and educational exposures to Foresters/Scientists, arrangements are made for visits abroad for short and long term training courses, meetings/symposia and workshops. Financial assistance is provided by World Bank, UNDP, British Council, IPRC, FAO, INBAR, USDA under various Forestry research and educational support programs.

In order to strengthen education in forestry disciplines, technical and financial assistance are also extended to various Universities. Many students, industry’s representatives, teachers, and various user groups including farmers are also trained on recent advanced technologies.

Access to Genetic Resources

There is widely recognized need to put in place legislation regulating the movement of genetic resources in line with the convention on Biological diversity and needs of individuals countries Policies concerning access to plant genetic resources are currently in a state of flux. Generally the access is enforced "Prior informed consent" and access on mutually agreed terms. In general, the legal status of existing ex-situ collection is undefined and responsibility for the distribution material lies, in practice, with a higher authority.

Quarantine regulations are in place in the majority of the regional countries. In general, it is reported that such regulations are not always well afforded as a result of general lack of awareness of the laws importance and lack of funds for monitoring the movement of material. In India plant quarantine, which has a list of plant species whose entry in to the Countries of the sub-region is restricted as a threat as pest and disease induction regulates movement of plant material within the region.

Seed Regulations

Seed certification is meant to ensure that the seed for use is of the variety and quality named. Thus seed certification legislation has been adopted, mostly for agriculture seeds. It is under consideration to adapt it in Forestry.

Plant Breeders Right

Though India considers plant breeders’ right legislation, which would reward the providers of genetic resource, it being implemented in agriculture.

Though India has phytosanitary regulations, other legislation concerning is only for PGRFA (Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture) is often poorly understood for forestry related activities, inadequately developed and implemented or non-existent. There is a general need to review and assess existing law and adapt these or develop new ones in the line specific needs. There is also general need to harmonize national legislation, especially concerning access to forestry genetic resources and intellectual property rights (IPR). International legal assistance is required to draft suitable legislation covering IPR for forestry varieties in the line with International agreements and national needs.

There is an urgent need to develop and foster a national organization in India, which may deal with various aspects on forest genetic resource. This organization may also deal with seed quarantine, seed technology, seed movement regulation and its legal aspects It may also be vital to develop a Forest Tree Seed Corporation (FTSC), which will not only help producing large quantities of improved seed material for increasing the production but also systemize the forest tree seed production, collection, handling, storage and export. in large scale and also conserve the biological diversity of genetic resources.

Constraints

Lack of Funding for Tree Improvement Programme

Tree improvement is an activity, which requires adequate input and gestation period. Therefore, various user agencies should be provided external funding for establishment of clonal seed orchards, seed production areas, tissue culture techniques; establishment of trial plots for clonal forestry using rooted cuttings and tissue culture raised plants. In addition, funds are also needed to upgrade the existing seed storage facilities, mist chambers, tissue culture labs in order to mass produce quality planting stocks for large scale planting programmes planned under National Forestry Action Proramme 2000 for next 20 years.

Mobilization of Funds in the Past

Since the commencement of the First Year Plan (FYP) in 1951, Rs. 85 billion have been spent up to Eighth FYP ended in 1996-97 on plan activates of forestry development. During this period afforestation about 26.90 million ha. has been carried out. Financial allocation to the forestry sector have increased from Rs. 76 million in the First FYP to Rs. 40,818 million in the Eighth FYP but is has always been less than 1% of the total plan outlay of the country. It is one of the main reasons for the continuous deterioration of forest resources. This is planned to be raised to 2% in next Plan Period.

A provision of Rs. 68 billion has been made for the Ninth Plan. During 1997-98 of the Ninth Plan, afforestation of 1.48 million ha has done which includes the distribution of 1033 million seedlings (making 0.516 million ha on the basis of 2000 seedlings per ha). Thus up to 1997-98, total afforestation is 28.38 million ha, which includes a notional target of 4.65 million ha (equivalent of 9309 million seedlings distributed to people).

Average annual plan outlay for forestry sector during the Eighth FYP was about Rs. 8.16 billion whereas the estimated annual withdrawals (recorded and unrecorded) from the forests were worth Rs. 300 billion during the same period, which is about 36 times more than the Planned investment.

Forestry under the Five year Plans, 1951-2002 (Rs. In million)

Externally Funded/Aided Projects

At present, 19 externally aided projects are under implementation in 13 states of the country with the total approved assistance of Rs. 42278 million. The annual assistance ranges from Rs. 4500 to 5000 million. Main donor agencies are the World Bank, OECF Japan, DFID, EEC, UNDP, Germany and SIDA.

These projects have certainly given a big boost to planned development of forestry in India. This financial assistance is part of the State Plan outlay. External assistance received is allocated through the Central and State Plan budget. It has been observed that States having externally aided projects are not making adequate provision of funds on their own that are commensurate to the requirements of project programmes. This problem needs to be addressed to boost the conservation and development of variety of available genetic tree resources.

Requirement of Funds for future programme

To fulfill the policy objective of having 33% of country’s area under forest and tree cover, an annual programme of afforestation and regeneration of 3 million ha is required. On the current cost norm it needs an estimated annual budget of Rs. 52850 million against the average annual availability of Rs. 8160 million for forestry and wildlife sectors and Rs. 16150 million in total taking together all related programmes under different Ministries, which is much less than the requirement.

The works of regeneration and plantation will be mostly covered in two sub-programmes of National Forestry Action Programme (NFAP) i.e., increasing forest productivity and expanding forest cover. Average annual estimate of investment in these two components of NFAP are Rs. 19574 million required for 33% forest/tree cover. It is because (i) investment estimates in NFAP is for regeneration/plantation of 48.2 million ha (2.4 million ha per year) against 60 million ha (3.0 million ha per) referred in para 12 and (ii) NFAP proposals do not take into account all expenditure in agroforestry and private plantations. Any how annual (average) estimate of Rs. 39854 million required for proposed regeneration/plantation in SFAPs is much more than the available average annual plan of Rs. 8160 million for forestry and wildlife.

Summary of Investment Estimate for the country (State and Central Sectors) by Programme (Rs. in million)

Summary of Investment Estimate for 20 Years by Programme (Rs. in million)

Proposed investment has been estimated on the basis of the requirement of the sector irrespective of the source of funding.

Conclusion

Forest genetic resources are the biological basis of the world food and health security and directly or indirectly, support the livelihoods of every person on earth as food, feed for domestic animals, fiber clothing, shelter, wood, timber, medicine, energy etc. These resources are the raw material used in the production of new cultivators, through traditional plant breeding or through biotechnology. The erosion of these resources poses a severe threat to the world’s food security in the long term. Thus, there is an urgent need to conserve and utilize the genetic resources as a safeguard against an unpredictable future in the Indian sub-continent which is the storehouse of mega bio-diversity in genetic resources.

Today, access to the benefit of forest direct and indirect is not secure, due to rapid deforestation. In the next few years, the world population is expected to multiply rapidly. Reliable and sustainable improvements in the yields will be needed to meet the demands of this growing population. The conservation and sustainable utilization of plant genetic resources are the keys in improving the forestry productivity and sustainability, thereby contributing to national development, food and health security and the alleviation of poverty.

Annexure - 1

State wise Seed production Areas of various species