GENERAL ECOLOGY
Peninsular Malaysia (P.M.) extends between 2°N and 6°N longitude. The climate is practically non-seasonal with respect to temperature. In the lowlands, the annual mean temperature is 27°C and the difference in mean monthly temperature between the warmest months (March-June) and the coolest months (November-January) is 2°C or less (Dale, 1963).
The annual mean rainfall varies according to locality from 165 to 422 cm; its distribution over the year may be bimodal or unimodal depending on locality but in general there is no part of the year dry enough to impose an obvious seasonal water-stress effect on plant, growth except in the extreme north-western corner (Dale, 1960). There is usually a peak of flowering in April-May, but these peaks are not obvious. At unpredictable intervals of 1–6 years or more, the flowering peak reaches a very high level when it is referred to as “general” or “gregarious” flowering. Nevertheless there is a trickle of flowering activity throughout the year and each species has its own peculiarities, from ever-flowering to semi-annual, annual and supraannual.
The highest mountains are only slightly higher than 2,000 m. Forests extend up to the summits except for small patches of bare rock. On the West Coast, where rivers drain into the narrow and sheltered Straits of Malacca, extensive mangrove forests are developed.
The only comprehensive classification of the climax vegetation of the peninsula is that proposed by C.F. Symington (1943), supported by J. Wyatt-Smith (1963). It is based on a very flexible combination of edaphic, altitudinal, floristic and physiognomic considerations. Twelve climax types are recognized, as follows:
ECONOMIC PRODUCTS
The main economic products of the forest are timber, rattans and bamboos. Timber is by far the most important in terms of volume and total value. The volume of timber produced annually is about 10 million m3. Eighteen species or species groups (groups of related species with similar timber properties) account for nearly 70% of the total and of the total production supplied by these 18 species, the dipterocarp family makes up 79% and leguminous species 15%.
PROTECTED AREAS
The various categories of protected forests are listed below, together with a brief discussion of their usefulness in biological conservation.
i) National parks: There is only one officially designated National Park in Peninsular Malaysia. This is the Taman Negara (literally “national park”), covering 434,351 ha of primary forest and straddling across three states. Within its boundaries are seven of the twelve forest types recognized by Symington viz. lowland dipterocarp, hill dipterocarp, upper dipterocarp, montane oak, montane ericaceous, riparian fringe and limestone. The National Park is strictly protected due to the vigilance of the Department of Wildlife and National parks, strongly supported by the Malayan Nature Society, the Friends of the Earth Society, the Environmental Protection Society and a broad coalition of professional, scientific and consumer associations. Because of its large size and broad range of habitats, the National Park is the most effective area for in situ conservation of all the forms of plant and animal life found within it.
ii) Wildlife reserves and wildlife sanctuaries: Twenty-three such reserves or sanctuaries have been declared since 1903 but the effectiveness of protection varies from place to place. One, at Chior, is no longer effective at all. Nine of them are concurrently, in whole, or in part, also forest reserves, which means that they are subject to logging. The best ones, viz. Kerau Wildlife Reserve (53,095 ha), and Sungai Dusun Wildlife Reserve (4,330 ha) are strictly protected. The Kerau Wildlife Reserve includes the Gunong Benom massif and includes lowland dipterocarp forest up to montane ericaceous forest.
These three reserves, together with the National Park, add up to a total of 494,204 ha, which is 3.75% of the total land area (13,167,560 ha) of Peninsular Malaysia. Geographically they all lie across the central belt of the peninsula. The flora and fauna of the north and south are not adequately provided for. Several new reserves have been proposed, which will rectify the situation but there has been no progress for many years.
The proposed Endau-Rompin National park of 48,775 ha is crucial for the survival of the characteristic flora and fauna of south Peninsular Malaysia.
Wildlife reserves, wildlife sanctuaries, and national parks are managed by the Department of Wildlife and National Parks.
iii) Forest reserves: These are reserves managed by the Forest Department and they include the hill dipterocarp forests up to the montane ericaceous forests, the mangrove swamp forests, and some peat swamp forests.
Forest reserves in the lowlands have either been converted to agriculture or are scheduled for conversion. The area of forests managed by the Forest Department will, it is hoped, stablize at 5,180,000 ha (12.8 million acres) or 39.3% of the land area of Peninsular Malaysia (Anon., 1979).
Forest reserves are zoned into protective forests, productive forests and amenity forests.
Protective forests include riverine fringes, montane ericaceous forest, and catchments that supply water to reservoirs. Formerly, hill dipterocarp, upper dipterocarp and montane oak forests were all regarded as protective forests. However, logging is now permitted even up to montane oak forests and it often looks as if the limit between productive and protective forests is determined by the distribution of commercial sized timber and the capability of logging vehicles rather than by environmental criteria.
Fig. 1 National Parks and Wildlife Reserves in Peninsular Malaysia
Fig. 2 Distribution of Virgin Jungle Reservos in Peninsular Malaysia
Fig. 3 Distribution of Agathis borneensis in Peninsular Malaysia
Fig. 4 Distribution of Gonystylus bancanus in Peninsular Malaysia
Fig. 5 Proposed permanent forest estate of Peninsular Malaysia (excluding Taman Negara, Kerau and Endau-Rompin
Montane ericaceous forest is generally non-commercial and is not under threat except in specific localities due to the development of montane holiday resorts. Riparian fringes are supposed to be protected but the degree of protection is at present inadequate. In the productive forests, management and silvicultural operations are biased in favour of species in the Regeneration Sampling List (Anon., 1975). In general, therefore, species on the RS List are adequately conserved in managed forest reserves, while logging provides extensive opportunities for pioneer species in the genera Macaranga, Trema and Anthocephalus.
iv) Virgin Jungle Reserves: In recognition of the inevitable changes that follow logging and silviculture in natural forests, it has been the practice of the Forest Department to maintain certain areas within Forest Reserves as Virgin Jungle Reserves. A Virgin Jungle Reserve is declared and maintained by the Forest Department in the exercise of its own authority within its area of jurisdiction. It is not supported by any legislation and this is perhaps the greatest weakness of the VJR system. Nevertheless, there is the advantage that, under an enlightened Forest Administration, a VJR system can be implemented with minimum delay because it does not depend on external approval. There are about 80 VJRs in Peninsular Malaysia, ranging in size from 2.5 to 1,600 ha; however, only 14 VJRs are under 50 ha in size. For maximum usefulness, a VJR has to be buffered by a larger area of managed forest reserve and this was in fact the original intention. However, in several cases, the buffer forest has disappeared and only the VJR remains. In such cases, the VJR can be expected to become progressively poorer in species with the passage of time.
LEGISLATION
The Acts of Parliament relating to the conservation of forest and wildlife resources are:
Protection of Wild Life Act, 1972
National Forestry Act, 1984.
The Protection of Wild Life Act provides for the declaration of wildlife reserves and sanctuaries, powers of Game Wardens and the total or partial protection of individual species of mammals and birds.
The National Forestry Act provides for the constitution, management and exploitation of reserved forests. Two sections in the Act are of particular relevance to the in situ conservation of genetic resources. Section 10 provides for the constitution of Virgin Jungle Reserves and other protected areas while Section 97 can be invoked for the protection of any species which is found to be endangered.
On the whole the legislation is adequate for protection of wildlife and forest resources. The problems lie not so much with legislation, as with the actual demarcation and constitution of National Parks, Wildlife Reserves and Forest Reserves. State Governments have been reluctant to declare permanent reserves of any kind. Those that are in existence date back, in almost all cases, to the Colonial period, before 1957.
CASE STUDIES
Case studies are presented of 20 important forest species of P.M. Most of them are species for timber production, but they include also food and fruit trees, fuelwood trees, rattans and bamboos, and resin-producing species.
1. Agathis borneensis Warburg (Araucariaceae). Damar minyak(Malay), Malayan Kauri.
General. A large coniferous tree to 45 m tall, producing the only commercial softwood in Malaysia. The resin enters world trade as Manila Copal and is used in certain varnishes. Occurs as dominant tree on main mountain ranges and on several isolated mountains between 300 and 1,500 m; a single lowland stand occurs on the N.E. coast of P.M.
Conservation status. There are populations of Agathis borneensis in the National Park, the Krau Game Reserve and the Gunung Jerai State Park. These populations are quite safe from exploitation. The coastal population on the north-east coast at Besut is protected by the Forest Department on an informal basis; it would be desirable to declare this a Virgin Jungle Reserve.
2. Aquilaria malaccensis Lamk (Thymelaeaceae). Karas.
General. A medium-sized to large tree up to 36 m tall. In general produces a soft, light timber, but pieces of resin-impregnated, dark brown wood occur sporadically which produce highly aromatic fumes when burned; this “incense wood” has high unit value. Occurs in lowland forest and up to 750 m in all states of P.M. except Perlis.
Conservation status. Because of the high value of the incense wood and the fact that the collectors work inconspicuously in small parties, breaking up the wood on the spot, it is practically impossible to prevent trees from being felled except in gardens and other closely guarded places.
Seeds are difficult to obtain and probably unstorable. To encourage natural regeneration, this species should be placed on the silvicultural preferred list so that foresters will learn to recognize the seedlings and give them favoured treatment. It would also be desirable to establish a plantation of this species in order to provide material for investigations on the formation of the incense wood as well as to serve as a gene bank and source of seeds.
3. Calamus caesius Blume (Palmae). Rotan sega.
General. A rattan cane up to 100 m or more long, the best cane for binding and weaving for furniture and basketware. In P.M. it seems to be confined to freshwater swamps, alluvial flats or to the margins of peat swamp forest.
Conservation status. It is impossible to prevent the cutting of small-diameter canes from forests. Such “gathering” is traditional to the way of life of people who live in or near the forests. Fortunately, Rotan sega is a clustering palm which produces suckers from the base. It is therefore able to survive collecting much better than most other plants. The main threat is the clearing of forests for agriculture and the draining of the swampy habitat it prefers. Cultivation of Rotan sega is being promoted.
4. Calamus manan Miquel (Palmae). Rotan manau, rotan manau telur.
General. A rattan cane up to 100 m or more long. It is the most important and valuable of all canes, used mainly in the manufacture of furniture. In P.M. it is mainly found in hill forests between 50 and 1,000 m, usually on steep slopes.
Conservation status. The resource base of Calamus manan is endangered by the very strong economic demand for the cane. Unlike C. caesius, C. manan is a solitary plant. Each cane that is cut results in the death of the plant. It is difficult to prevent the cutting of canes in the forest, hence the best way of renewing this resource would probably be by cultivation. Research on cultivation is being conducted by the Forest Research Institute.
5. Dipterocarpus sp. Gaertn. f. (Dipterocarpaceae) Kerning.
General. A large tree to 45 m tall, producing a medium hardwood suitable for heavy construction and, in some species, an oleoresin which is used for varnishes and the caulking of boats. Occurs throughout P.M. in lowland and hill dipterocarp forests below 1,400 m.
Conservation status. The abundance of Dipterocarpus species and their wide distribution over different habitats helps in the preservation of the species. Most of the species are conserved in a number of Virgin Jungle Reserves.
6. Dryobalanops aromatica Gaertn. f. (Dipterocarpaceae). Kapur (Malay), Borneo camphorwood.
General. Very large emergent tree over 60 m tall. It is one of the tallest and fastest growing timber species of the Indo-Malayan tropics. It produces a medium hardwood and is also a source of crystalline camphor. Prefers slopes and ridges at 60–360 m altitude. In P.M. it is restricted to two large blocks on the east coast, and a small area west of the Main Range near Rawang in Selangor.
Conservation status. This species is conserved in a number of Virgin Jungle Reserves. Furthermore, the rich area near Rawang in Selangor can be considered conserved as it forms part of a Forest Recreation Park.
7. Durio spp. Adans. (Bombaceae). Durian
General. Medium to large tree producing a light hardwood timber. Durio zibithinus produces the most popular and famous fruit of S.E. Asia. The tree is found in primary forest from the lowlands up to 1,000 m.
Conservation status. Durio zibithinus is well conserved in cultivation, in all its forms, because part of the appeal of durian as a fruit is the wide range of textures and flavours available. The other species are neglected but should be protected as part of the genetic resource of this very important genus. It is not known how well the various species are represented in existing reserves.
8. Dyera costulata Hk. f. (Apocynaceae). Jelutong.
General. Big tree up to 60 m tall, which produces a light, undurable hardwood. The latex is an important source of the basic ingredient of chewing gum (Burkill 1935). Found scattered in lowland dipterocarp forests, up to an altitude of 300 m, and occasionally in swamps. It is found throughout P.M. except for Langkawi and Perlis.
Conservation status. Jelutong is threathened by heavy commercial exploitation and by conversion of lowland forests to agriculture. However, it is conserved in the national park and other reserves and is a favoured species in natural forest silviculture.
9. Ficus spp. Linn. (Moraceae). Ara (Malay), fig (English)
General. Of the 101 species in P.M., 49 are trees. There are also shrubs, epiphytes, stranglers, climbers and creepers; all woody. The fruits of several species are eaten by man but are not as tasty as the Mediterranean fig and have no major economic uses. However, they constitute the most important single source of food for mammals and birds in tropical forests. Found on open ground everywhere from sea coasts to mountain tops, except in mangroves.
Conservation status. Figs are not specifically conserved anywhere. However, the important role of figs as a food source for wildlife is gradually being appreciated, with the result that the managers of wildlife sanctuaries, bird parks and zoos are paying more attention to the protection and planting of fig trees.
Many figs make good ornamental trees. Their use as avenue and park trees in tropical cities should be encouraged because they are attractive and provide a good environment for bird life.
Figs were at one time poison-girdled in managed forest reserves. Fortunately, the practice of poison-girdling of “weed trees” has fallen out of favour in recent years.
The conservation of figs is inseparable from the conservation of the wasps associated with each species of fig. If we plant a fig tree outside of its natural habitat and do not introduce its wasp, that tree cannot propagate itself by seed.
To conserve the wasp associated with each species of fig, we have to ensure that the fig is represented by a large enough number of trees so that the wasps can move from one crop of fruits to another. If a tree fruits continuously, the wasp generations can be maintained on a few trees. However, if male, female and gall flowers are on different trees, the number of trees to be maintained would have to be large enough to ensure that all three types are well represented - one type to provide pollen, another to produce seeds and the third type to provide breeding facilities for the wasp. If fruiting is in irregular flushes, then there must be enough trees so that every month, one or more trees of the same species would be in fruit, to ensure that there is no break in the chain that would cause the wasp to become extinct.
It is quite possible that the natural populations of some species of figs may have dropped so low that their associated wasps no longer exist. Such species of figs can be considered to have reached the end of their evolutionary life and will have to be maintained by vegetative propagation.
10. Gigantochloa scortechinii Gamble (Gramineae). Buluh semantan, Buluh raya, Buluh pa-aao.
General. A large bamboo up to 15 m tall. It is the most widely available and most useful of wild bamboos in P.M., being used in the joss-stick industry, the vegetable basket industry and the poultry cage industry. Occurs throughout P.M. but not further south than the town of Tampin in the south-western state of Negeri Sembilan. Common in disturbed and logged-over forests in the lowlands and at forest fringes and streambanks up to 700 m.
Conservation status. G. scortechinii, being somewhat weedy, may be considered as adequately conserved. However, its status as an effective resource should be safeguarded by both silvicultural management of natural stands and by cultivation.
11. Gonystylus bancanus (Miq.) Kurz (Thymeleaceae). Ramin melawis.
General. Medium-sized tree to 27 m tall, producing a light hardwood known as Ramin, with a reputation as first class joinery timber. According to Burkill (1935) the species sometimes yields a scented substitute for aloes wood. In P.M. it is confined to peat swamp forests on the west coast.
Conservation status. This is an endangered species, due to heavy exploitation, poor natural regeneration, lack of silvicultural knowledge about the species, and reduction of habitat. Peat swamps are being drained in many parts of the country for agriculture.
12. Intsia palembanica Thouars (Leguminosae). Merbau.
General. Big tree to 50 m tall, producing a heavy hardwood, very strong and durable. Occurs in the lowland dipterocarp forests and up to 1,000 m on suitable sites.
Conservation status. Since this species is restricted mainly to the more fertile areas of lowland dipterocarp forests, it is endangered by the clearing of such areas for agriculture. Conservation of the species in plantations may help. A seed gene bank for this species would be quite feasible because the seeds have a long storage life.
13. Koompassia excelsa (Becc.) Taubert (Leguminosae). Tualang.
General. A very big tree to about 80 m tall, producing a medium hardwood. It is recorded to be the tallest tropical rain forest tree in the world and the third tallest of all trees. It grows in valleys and on the lower slopes of hills and is fairly common and often markedly gregarious. Occurs in the central and northern parts of P.M. and is conspicuously absent from the south.
Conservation status. The species is conserved in the National Park (Taman Negara) area in Pahang state. A Big Tree Plot exists a few miles west of Temerloh town in Pahang, preserving a stand of mature Tualang trees, for public viewing, beside the main road.
14. Koompassia malaccensis Maing. ex Benth. (Leguminosae). Kempas.
General. A big tree to about 60 m tall, producing a medium hardwood, very strong but not durable. Occurs in lowland forest and up to about 650 m altitude as well as in peat and freshwater swamps. Very common and widespread in P.M.
Conservation status. This important timber species is abundantly represented throughout the Malay Peninsula. It is not under any threat of extinction.
15. Neobalanocarpus heimii (King) Ashton (Dipterocarpaceae). Chengal.
General. Very big tree to 60 m tall, producing a heavy hardwood with a well-deserved reputation for durability, traditionally the best known and most highly valued timber in the country. It is also a source of the resin “Damar Penak” which was a valuable product in the early part of the century, but demand is almost non-existent at present. Cousens (1965) thinks the tree may live 1,400 years or more. Occurs in lowland and hill forests up to 900 m, on well-drained, friable soils. It occurs in all states of P.M. except Perlis and Malacca.
Conservation status. Chengal is conserved in quite a number of Virgin Jungle Reserves and in the National Park.
16. Palaquium gutta (Hk. f.) Baillon (Sapotaceae). Nyatoh taban merah.
General. A medium-sized tree to about 25 m tall, producing a light hardwood. It is the main source of gutta percha, one of the country's most important forest products in the early part of this century. At present commercial activities in gutta percha are insignificant. Occurs in primary lowland forest below about 300 m. In P.M. it has been recorded in all states except Perlis, Kedah and Trengganu in the north.
Conservation status. This species is not under any threat of extinction. It occurs frequently in lowland forest and should be adequately conserved within the national park and various forest reserves in the country.
17. Parkia speciosa Hassk. (Leguminosae). Petai.
General. A big buttressed tree about 35 m tall, better known for its edible fruits than for its timber, which is a light hardwood. Young pods and both unripe and mature seeds are considered a local delicacy and are cooked as a vegetable. The species is an important source of food for the bats that pollinate it. These same bats also pollinate the durian when in season, hence petai, bats and durians are components of a natural food web with important impacts on the rural economy. In P.M. it is a common forest tree from the lowlands to about 650 m and is also frequently planted in the villages.
Conservation status. The species is adequately conserved.
18. Rhizophora species (Rhizophoraceae). Bakau.
General. Tree to 30 m or over. Rhizophora spp. are the most important economic timber species of the mangrove forests. Timber has traditionally been used for charcoal production, firewood and poles, while the bark is a good source of tannin. Two of the eight species of Rhizophora, R. mucronata and R. apiculata, are represented in P.M. They are found in the mangrove forests along sheltered coasts, mainly along the west coast, with small patches along the east coast in sheltered estuaries of Pahang and Trengganu.
Conservation status. Although Rhizophora spp. still occur in abundance in most mangrove forests in P.M., it is desirable that more areas be conserved as Virgin Jungle Reserves in addition to those in Pulau Kecil, Perak and Sg. Miang, Pahang.
During thinning operations, the larger plants are removed rather than the smaller, in order to make the thinnings saleable. This practice penalises fast growing vigorous genotypes, making it all the more important to establish VJRs as genetic reserves.
19. Shorea curtisii Dyer ex King (Dipterocarpaceae). Meranti seraya.
General. Large trees exceed 1 m diameter, producing a light hardwood marketed as dark red meranti, extremely popular as a general utility timber. It dominates the ridge crests of mountain ranges at 300–750 m altitude, but sometimes descends almost to sea level on coastal hills. Found throughout P.M. except the small north-western state of Perlis. Burgess (1969) found it transpires at half to two-thirds the rate of other common forest trees which do not show ridge dominance.
Conservation status. The species is conserved in several Virgin Jungle Reserves and is a preferred species in the natural regeneration of hill forests.
20. Shorea platyclados Sloot ex Foxw (Dipterocarpaceae). Meranti bukit.
General. Very large tree, with specimens up to 172 cm diameter having been recorded. The timber is a light hardwood, classified and sold as dark red meranti and extremely popular as a general utility timber. The 1983 export of dark red meranti represented 25% of the volume and 43% of the value of total sawn timber exports. In P.M. it is a characteristic tree of the upper dipterocarp forest; the optimum altitudinal range is 750–1,050 m.
Conservation status. The species is well represented in the upper dipterocarp forest zone and so it is not endangered. It is conserved in a few Virgin Jungle Reserves.
ASSESSING CONSERVATION STATUS
A qualitative assessment of the conservation status of each species is contained in the case studies. Where adequate surveys have been made, an assessment of the extent to which existing protected areas sample the range of a species can be made by comparison of species distribution maps with protected area maps. In P.M. the maps of National Parks and Wildlife Reserves, Forest Reserves and Virgin Jungle Reserves (Figs. 1, 2, 5) give a good indication of the degree of effective protection to be expected in any given area. Examples of distribution maps for Gonystylus bancanus and Agathis borneensis are shown for comparison in Figs. 3 and 4. Use of transparent map overlays is a convenient method of assessing representivity of protected areas.
In the examples shown, it can be seen that the greater part of Agathis borneensis distribution is included within Forest Reserves and there are substantial areas in National Parks or Wildlife Reserves. The great majority of the disjunct lowland populations of Gonystylus bancanus, in contrast, lacks all protection, being not only outside National Parks and Virgin Jungle Reserves but also outside commercial Forest Reserves.
Representivity of protected areas can be assessed more precisely if there is not only information on the occurrence of a species but also quantitative data on how rare or abundant is that occurrence. Such data can be obtained from forest inventories where they exist. Often the inventories include timber species only. Table 1 gives available data on the natural stocking density of the 20 selected species, but reveals that, despite its importance as a source of fruit, no inventory data are available for Durio spp, nor for the important commercial bamboo Gigantochloa scortechinii.
Conservation status in Table 1 refers to IUCN categories and the occurrence of the species generally in Peninsular Malaysia. Therefore, though it may be rated as endangered, it could be well represented in certain protected areas, e.g. Calamus manan. In general, the species which are most vulnerable are not the commercial timber species but species which are heavily exploited for local use and/or occur on forest land being converted to agriculture.
POSSIBLE CONSERVATION PILOT PROJECTS
Three possible projects have been identified:
Project 1.
There is no systematic inventory of species in protected areas. Some areas have been subjected to much more research than others, e.g. Pasoh, Bukit Lagong, Sungei Manyala, Kuala Tahan in the National Park, and Kuala Lompat in Kerau Wildlife Reserve. For others, there are mostly casual notes from brief visits in which a few species are noted each time. Information needs to be brought together in a data base. Without such a data base it is impossible to asses the conservation status of vulnerable species in relation to the national system of protected areas. The availability of relatively low priced computer systems for this kind of work makes the proposal quite feasible now compared to some years ago.
The project in its earlier phases could contain the following elements:
The development of a conservation data centre with computer facilities.
The collection and storage of all available information on vulnerable tree species.
The assessment of the conservation status of vulnerable species in Virgin Jungle Reserves (VJR's).
Identification of needs for extending representivity of VJR's.
Project 2.
A new forest law has been promulgated in Malaysia which gives greater protection to gazetted Forest Reserves and their constituent Virgin Jungle Reserves. These Reserves occupy more than twenty percent of the land mass of the nation and there is ample evidence that they are increasingly being managed for the production of goods and services in perpetuity.
To date they have been exploited primarily for commercial timber. However, it is now generally recognized that in the future it will be necessary to take more fully into account many other genetic resources of the forest including faunal resources.
This project could be designed primarily to determine, as a first approximation the policies and management practices required to ensure maximum densities of faunal genetic resources in managed, utilized Forest Reserves and in VJRs. It could take the form of a cooperative research project between the Forestry Department, the Forest Research Institute, and the Department of Wildlife and National Parks, and would be sited in a managed Forest Reserve bordering a National Park. The project could take into account the recent research in the field completed in Malaysia.
Possible elements of the project are as follows:
Assessment of relative densities of a small number of representative species in logged and unlogged forests.
An appraisal of the role of forestry in the conservation of faunal genetic resources in gazetted forest reserves.
The preparation of a report incorporating the results of the project and providing broad guidelines for field foresters in conservation policies and methodologies.
Project 3
The successful management of the Mantang mangrove forests in the state of Parah provides an excellent example of value to other countries where such forests are important. The project could contain the following elements:
Determination and evaluation of the genetic resources (including possible intraspecific variation) of the Matang Forest Reserve.
Assessment of the measures required to ensure the conservation of the genetic resources of the Reserve including requirements in terms of Virgin Jungle Reserves.
Development of a management plan for the utilization of mangrove genetic resources with special reference to seed collecting, handling, and storage.
The development of an international training programme, with appropriate documentation, based on the management and utilization of the genetic resources of the Mantang mangrove forests.
REFERENCES
Anon. 1975 The regeneration sampling list of 1974. Malayan Forester 38: 3–13
Anon. 1979 Forest resources base, policy and legislation of Peninsular Malaysia. Malayan Forester 42: 328–347
Burgess, P.F. 1969 Preliminary observations on the autecology of Shorea curtisii in the Malay Peninsula. Malayan Forester 32:438
Burkill, I.H. 1935 A dictionary of the economic products of the Malay Peninsula. (1966 reprint by Department of Agriculture), Kuala Lumpur.
Corner, E.J.H. 1940 Wayside Trees of Malaya. Singapore Government Printer.
Cousens, J.E. 1965 Some reflections on the nature of Malayan lowland rain forest. Malayan Forester 28: 122–128
Dale, W.L. 1963 Surface temperatures in Malaya. Journ. Tropical Geography Vol. 17. Reprinted in Ooi J.B. & Chia L.S., 1974: Readings on the Climate of West Malaysia and Singapore. Oxford University Press, Singapore.
Ng, F.S.P. 1981 Vegetative and reproductive phenology of dipterocarps. Malayan Forester 44: 197–221
Ng, F.S.P. 1983 Ecological principles of tropical lowland rain forest conservation. In: S.L. Sutton et al. (Eds.) Tropical Rain Forest: Ecology and Management. Blackwell, Oxford.
Symington, C.F. 1943 Foresters' Manual of Dipterocarps. Malayan Forest Record No. 16. Forest Department, Kuala Lumpur.
Wyatt-Smith, J. 1963 Manual of Malayan silviculture for inland forests. Malayan Forest Record No. 23. Forest Department, Kuala lumpur.
Table 1. Conservation status of selected species and representation in typical protected areas
| Selected species | 1Stems/ha in zones | Conservation status 1 | Representation in protected areas | |||||||
| Use | 1 | 2 | 3 | |||||||
| NP | GR | PR | VJR | |||||||
| 1. | Agathis borneensis | WCh | - | 0.10 | - | Vulnerable | 1 | 4 | 4 | 3 |
| 2. | Aquilaria malaccensis | WCh | NA | NA | NA | Rare | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
| 3. | Calamus caesius | C | NA | NA | NA | Endangered | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 4. | Calamus manan | C | NA | NA | NA | Endangered | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 5. | Dipterocarpus | WCh | 3.19 | 0.44 | 0.17 | Abundant | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 6. | Dryobalanops aromatica | WM | 0.25 | - | - | Abundant | 3 | 3 | 1 | 3 |
| 7. | Durio | WFd | NA | NA | NA | Abundant | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 8. | Dyera costulata | WCh | 0.94 | - | 1.36 | Abundant | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 9. | Ficus | Wl | NA | NA | NA | Vulnerable | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 10. | Gigantochloa scortechinii | W | NA | NA | NA | Abundant | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
| 11. | Gonystylus bancanus | W | - | - | NA | Vulnerable | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
| 12. | Intsia palembanica | W | 0.84 | 0.10 | 1.16 | Vulnerable | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 13. | Koompassia excelsa | W | 2.02 | 0.22 | - | Abundant | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 14. | Koompassia malaccensis | W | 4.17 | 0.32 | 2.82 | Abundant | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 |
| 15. | Neobalanocarpus heimii | WCh | 0.22 | 0.10 | - | Vulnerable | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 16. | Palaquium gutta | WCh | NA | NA | NA | Vulnerable | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 17. | Parkia specious | WFd | NA | NA | NA | Abundant | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| 18. | Rhizophora | WFe | - | - | - | Abundant | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 |
| 19. | Shorea curtisii | WCh | 0.44 | 0.77 | - | Abundant | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 |
| 20. | Shorea platyclados | WCh | - | 1.61 | - | Abundant | 1 | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| Code for Table 1. | ||||||||||
| Use | ||
| W | = | Wood |
| Fd | = | Food |
| Fl | = | Fuel |
| M | = | Medicine |
| C | = | Cane |
| Ch | = | Chemical product (resin, oil, incense, etc.) |
| Wl | = | Important for wildlife |
| Zones | ||
| 1 | = | Hill Forest (moderate quality) |
| 2 | = | Upperhill/Montane Forest |
| 3 | = | Peat Swamp Forest |
| Protected Areas | ||
| NP | = | National Park (Taman Negara) |
| GR | = | Game Reserve (Kerau) |
| PR | = | Proposed Reserve (Endau Rompin) |
| VJR | = | Virgin Jungle Reserve (Pasoh) |
| Representation in protected areas | ||
| 1 | = | well represented |
| 2 | = | poorly represented |
| 3 | = | not represented |
| 4 | = | information not available |
| 1 Stems per hectare 15 cm diam, and above. | ||
