MONITORING, MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT OF FISHING CAPACITY - THE MALAYSIAN EXPERIENCE - Mohd Taupek and Mohd Nasir^[82]

Abstract: This paper provides a brief history of the evolution of the Malaysian fishery as a whole and illustrates the real situation of the fishery from its humble beginning before the introduction of trawlers in the early 1960s to the present overexploited condition of the fish resources in the 1990s. It outlines the different known problems besetting the fishery and also deals with the various management measures and monitoring systems undertaken by the Department of Fisheries Malaysia to rectify the situation arising from excessive fishing capacity and the estimated limited success from the implementation of such measures. Fish resource surveys undertaken at regular intervals helped to establish the status of the fish resources within specific areas, and these were further supplemented by various analyses (mostly through the use of 'surplus production models') on data obtained from direct research, commercial vessels and annual fisheries statistics. The alarming state of resource degradation which most of the marine waters in Malaysia are experiencing at present provides clear indication that a more effective management approach is vitally needed to remedy such imbalances in the performance of the fishery.

1. INTRODUCTION

The issues of excessive fishing capacity and resource overexploitation have been raised well within the past decade in reference to growing concern about the spreading phenomenon of excessive fishing inputs and valuable stocks depletion in world fisheries, and more so with fisheries that lie in the tropics. The two issues are in most cases inter-related, the first due essentially to having too many vessels or excessive harvesting power, and the second due to the general degradation of fishery resources usually from the manifestation of the first factor, in a growing number of fisheries. This undesirable situation, if left unchecked, could inevitably lead to other serious ramifications, notably that of a general dampening of the economic activities within the fishery sector of the countries concerned and thereby affecting whole societies that are directly or indirectly dependent on this sector. Prices of fish commodities would generally increase, which is counter to the objective of promoting fish as a relatively cheap source of protein to most people. In all cases, the management strategies applied to regulate these fisheries would normally come under scrutiny.

2. BACKGROUND

2.1 Geographical location

Malaysia lies in the tropics (Latitudes 1- 8 ^oN, Longitudes 100-119 ^oE), and comprises Peninsular Malaysia and the states of Sabah and Sarawak (Figure 1). Peninsular Malaysia, as the name suggests, is bounded by the sea on most of her sides, except in the north, where she is attached to mainland Asia via the Isthmus of Kra of Thailand. The island of Borneo located 1 200 km to the east of the Peninsular across the blue South China Sea, houses another two Malaysian states: Sabah and Sarawak (or East Malaysia). Sabah occupies the northern part of Borneo, while Sarawak is located entirely on the west of the island.

The west coast of the Peninsular is bordered mainly by the Straits of Malacca, and some portion of the Andaman Sea up north, and the Java Sea down south. The east coast of Peninsular Malaysia, however, faces the South China Sea, as with Sarawak, and the western part of Sabah (Figure 1). The waters here mostly lies on a continental shelf that is largely comprised of sandy bottom substrates and is generally shallow (<100 m in depth), but in some parts of western Sabah, water depth can extend to more than 2 000 m.

Figure 1. Map of Malaysia

Being in the tropics, and with the availability of essential factors conducive to excellent growth of aquatic organisms, the waters are rather productive. Harbouring a multitude of different varieties of tropical fish and other marine fauna, the fisheries themselves have been termed multispecies and multigear in nature. The fishing waters of Malaysia extends from the shoreline to the EEZ demarcation line, which on the Peninsular east coast and in Sarawak and some parts of Sabah can stretch up to 200 nautical miles. The total estimated area of this domain is 91 600 sq. nm, consisting of some 14 800 sq. nm on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia, 32 600 sq. nm on the east coast of the Peninsula, 36 800 sq. nm in Sarawak and 7 400 sq, nm on the west coast of Sabah.

2.2 Brief history of the fisheries

As in other Southeast Asian countries, the Malaysian fisheries prior to the 1960s were mainly artisanal in nature. Traditional fishing using hooks and lines in small non-motorized boats was common in most waters, as with the use of other traditional gears like drift nets, lift nets, bag nets, barrier nets and push nets. At strategic locations on the waters near some estuaries, man-made wooden stakes and platforms harbouring some shelters and submerged fishing traps were quite common. Known locally as kelong, these stationary traps bear some resemblance to the many other smaller and immobile fish traps known locally as pompang and gombang (bag nets), which were placed by fishers in the waters close to the coastline of the country.

Information on fish abundance during these early times is scant due to the absence of any credible resource surveys, but it is generally agreed that the waters were greatly infested with fish. Tiews (1965) estimated fish density in the continental shelf area of Malaysia less than 50 m deep as 12 tonnes/sq. nm, not considering the shallower near-shore waters would generally have higher concentration of fish than offshore waters. No attempts were made during these early periods to keep accurate records of landings at any site within the country. While there was a general lack of information concerning the actual number of fishers involved, the large number of fishing villages found existing along the coastline probably means that tens of thousands of people indulged in some form of fishing activities for their subsistence.

Significant changes, however, occurred in the 1960s, when synthetic fibre and trawl were first introduced (Mohd Ibrahim, 1987). The new fibre that gradually replaced the traditional natural fibre had a number of advantages when used as fishing nets. Compared to natural fibre, the synthetic fibre showed longer durability in water, had a higher tensile strength, and made the net more economical in terms of maintenance, time consumption and manpower usage. Because of its clear superiority, the new netting material gained popularity very rapidly. By 1962, fishing nets made from the synthetic material were used throughout the major fishing areas, starting from the west coast, then expanding to the east coast, and later to East Malaysia.

Trawl nets were introduced in 1963, starting with a single boat of about 20m in length. By July 1966, ten boats on the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia were converted into trawls, and by December of the same year, 40 trawlers were operating in the coastal waters (Mohd Ibrahim, 1987). At the end of the ensuing five-year period, a total of 1 349 trawl licences were issued by the Department of Fisheries Malaysia (DOFM). Use of trawls spread rapidly throughout the country, and became a major contributor towards the increase in catch of the demersal fish. The number of trawlers rose rapidly, and in 1982 a total of 6 109 units was licensed (Figure 2). With the opening of new fishing areas in 1987 in the EEZ waters of the country, additional licences were issued making the total number of trawls in 1989 at 6 384 units. In an effort to reduce fishing pressure in the coastal waters, the number of trawlers operating was reduced, and in 1996 the total number of trawlers estimated in operation around the country was around 5 619 units.

Figure 2. Number of trawlers licensed in Malaysia with respect to area of operation

Introduction of engine-fitted vessels to facilitate fishing began some time after the end of the First World War. Mechanized fishing vessels had been used in the coastal waters of the west coast as early as the 1930s, but only introduced to the east coast in 1950. East Malaysia probably developed such vessels about ten years later. In 1960, about 38 percent of the fishing vessels in Peninsular Malaysia were already mechanized, but in East Malaysia the number was less than five percent.

The percentage of mechanized fishing vessels in Peninsular Malaysia also increased steadily up to 74 percent in 1970, 82 percent in 1980, and 97 percent in 1990. In East Malaysia, this number rose rapidly from a mere five percent in 1960 to 78 percent in 1970, then gradually up to 80 percent in 1980 and 95 percent in 1990. In 1996, a total of 30 592 fishing vessels in Malaysia were mechanized, of which 5 619 units were trawlers, 12 166 units were gill net vessels, and 1 779 units hook and line fishing vessels.

Besides mechanization of the fishing vessels, changes also occurred in the vessel size, especially for trawlers. In the early 1970s, most trawlers were considered as small (of less than 40 GRT), a few were medium size (40-69 GRT), and none exceeded 70 GRT. In the 1980s, ten super trawlers (of size greater than 70 GRT) were first licensed. By 1990, the number of these trawlers had increased to 184. In 1996, a total of 565 fishing vessels, of size 70 GRT and above, were licensed. A majority of these were trawlers.

During the early period of operation, no restrictions were placed on the trawlers undertaking fishing. They were allowed open access into all marine waters, even those near to shore. This inevitably led to conflicts and general feelings of unrest amongst the traditional fishers, who viewed these trawlers as competent poachers that threatened their livelihood and available resources.

To put matters to rest, the DOFM issued an important requirement in the early 1970s that trawlers were prohibited fishing in waters less than three nautical miles from shore. In the early 1980s, the zone system was created, and this prohibited area was expanded to encompass five nautical miles from shore.

Gill nets, lift nets, bag nets, barrier nets, traditional seine nets, portable traps and hook and lines are some of the fishing gears that have long been classified as traditional and their operation not believed to have a serious impact on the sustainability of fish resources. Under the zone system, these gears are allowed to fish in coastal waters less than five nautical miles from shore (Zone A), and are also unrestricted from going beyond. Small trawlers of less than 40 GRT are allocated the coastal waters beyond the five nautical-mile limit up to twelve nautical miles (Zone B). Medium-size trawlers (40-69 GRT) are required to fish in waters slightly further away, at least twelve nautical miles from the shoreline (Zone C). Trawlers exceeding 70 GRT are categorized as offshore fishing vessels, and only allowed to operate in waters beyond thirty nautical miles (Zone C2). By designating the gears to the various zones of waters, DOFM hoped to avert any conflicts that might arise between fishers racing (or scrambling) to fish for the same resources.

The history of trawl fish landings in Malaysia between 1971 and 1996 is illustrated in Figure 3. The peak of around 330 000 tonnes in 1978 was achieved from fishing in coastal waters of less than 30 nautical miles from shore. As can be seen, trawl landings began to decline after 1978, but rose sharply again to around 440 000 tonnes in 1987 with the opening of new fishing grounds in the offshore waters. Trawl catches showed some slight increase after this period, and the landings then appeared to stabilize at around 600 000 tonnes in 1995. This value is about 54 percent of the total fish landings by all gears in Malaysia (Figure 4).

Figure 3. Trawl fish landings in Malaysia between 1971 and 1996

Figure 4. Fish landings by all gears in Malaysia (1969 - 1996)

2.3 Problems besetting the fisheries

Some of the major problems that have been identified and associated with the Malaysian fisheries are as follows:

2.3.1 Excessive fishing and resource overexploitation

The increase in number, size and efficiency of trawlers, coupled with the general improvement in fishing capability of the other existing gears, greatly increased the fishing pressure on the available fish stocks. Signs indicating excessive fishing might have occurred started to appear in the mid 1970s from the inshore waters (less than five nautical miles from shore) of both the west and east coast of Peninsular Malaysia. At the end of the 1970s, words filtered into the DOFM from fishermen that some fish species (like the "shrumbu" fish, Lactarius lactarius) were getting scarcer and near depletion. Other species of commercial importance also became less abundant, while changes in species composition and size among the dominant groups of fish became more apparent. Signs are now appearing that this phenomenon has probably spread to some parts of the offshore waters of Peninsular Malaysia as well.

2.3.2 Technological modification of fishing gears

The potential mobility of most fishing gears to upgrade their harvesting performance and in most cases the other negative influences simultaneously imposed on the environment and marine ecosystem, is a major concern that needs a proper discourse in an effective management system. In multispecies tropical fisheries like those in Malaysia, the constraints imposed generally take the forms of the do's and don'ts relating to the characteristics and specificity of the fishing vessels and gears. For example, the Two-boat Danish Seine, a traditional gear employed to catch prawns in some waters on the west coast of the Peninsular, has since the past two decades been modified by fishers to resemble pair trawling. This led to greater quantities of prawns and juvenile fish being caught by the boats than what were originally being caught. Enforcement strategies to counter such aberrations as in this case were given serious considerations by the DOFM, and monetary penalties normally imposed on errant fishers to discourage such actions.

2.3.3 Encroachment fishing

Without doubt, this has always been the greatest concern of the DOFM to bring some control and order to the various fisheries. Some of the larger fishing vessels, especially the big trawlers with their greater fishing capacity, are occasionally caught fishing in waters further inshore (i.e. outside their designated areas), which brings considerable feelings of unrest among the legitimate fishers operating within the area. Severe monetary penalties are normally imposed on offenders, and if caught several times may even lead to gear and vessel confiscation and even jail sentences. In the offshore waters of the country, especially in Peninsular Malaysia, the frequent occurrence of encroachment fishing by foreign vessels is another serious concern of the DOFM, which together with other governmental enforcement bodies patrolled these waters for the safety of the country and to discourage such activities.

3. MANAGEMENT MEASURES AND APPROACHES

Management measures and approaches developed and continually improved by the DOFM beginning from the 1960s to regulate fishing activities are many. Briefly, these include, inter alia, the technical measures, effort controls and limited access.

Some of the technical measures currently imposed include area and time restrictions, and gear restrictions such as specifying the minimum mesh sizes of fishing nets. For example, close fishing seasons and areas, and total fishing prohibition within specific stretches of marine waters (e.g. waters of the Marine Park). The minimum cod-end mesh sizes of prawn and fish trawl nets have been set at ¾-inch and 1½-inch when stretched (Department of Fisheries Malaysia, 1999). The use of turtle excluder devices (TEDs) on prawn trawl nets is increasingly becoming mandatory.

Input controls include restrictions on the number of fishing units through limiting the number of licences or permits issued, and restrictions on the body and engine sizes of fishing vessels. The maximum engine power (in horsepower) fitted for trawlers should not exceed 4.40 times their GRT, and for purse seiners, engine powers (in horsepower) are only allowed up to 3.47 times their GRT. Vessels employing traditional gears should have engine powers not exceeding 3.40 times their GRT. The amount of time that these units can spend fishing is, however, still not limited.

Limited access is becoming more important as a means to avoid unwarranted conflicts between fishers operating the different fishing gears. In Malaysia, the zone system employed is able to provide ample fishing grounds for the respective gears to fish, and surveillance activities are constantly conducted to ensure the gears do not infringe the terms and conditions stipulated for their operation.

As with other responsible fisheries management authorities, the DOFM undertakes seriously the task of monitoring, control and surveillance of the respective fisheries under its management strategies. Various trained staff belonging to the Department are assigned specific duties to ensure the objectives under this extremely important programme are fulfilled.

4. MONITORING, MEASUREMENT AND ASSESSMENT OF FISHING CAPACITY

Monitoring involves the collection, measurement and analysis of data and information on fishing activities (FAO, 1997). In Malaysia, this very important aspect is undertaken by two divisions of the DOFM - the Research Division and Statistics Division. The Research Division also undertakes fish resource surveys at specific intervals using research and commercial vessels. This is in order to periodically estimate the status of the fish resources, including the stock biomass (both demersal and pelagic), exploitable potentials (and maximum sustainable yields) and exploitation rates.

4.1 Monitoring fishing capacity of all major gears

4.1.1 Data on catch-efforts and landings

Catch and effort data of all major fishing gears, are collected monthly by trained staff at all major fish landing centres. The sample consists of at least 20 percent of the number of fishing gears in use. Depending upon the gear used and location, sampling is normally undertaken during the fish landing process, this being either in the early morning or late afternoon. Choice of vessel is at random, being based on availability while sampling is being conducted. Data on all fish species or groups of species are recorded as these vessels land and weigh their catch, even those considered to be trash. Sub-sampling is undertaken for groups of fishers with excessively high catches to gain an estimate on their species composition. Catches from vessels that do not complete their normal fishing day, for example due to engine breakdown or other problems, are not considered in the sampling.

Among the information recorded during sampling are:

• name of fishing gear and type;
• number of gears in operation;
• number of days fishing at sea;
• number of times the gear is set/day;
• number of hours the gear is fishing;
• total weight of catch; and

• weight of each species (or groups of species) in the catch.

The catch data from each gear sampled are then averaged to indicate the gear's fishing capacity and raised to the total number of gears in operation within the month to obtain the monthly landings.

4.1.2 Evaluation of the data collection process

Clearly for data that are obtained manually, their accuracy would depend largely on the knowledge and skill of the person doing the sampling. With the existence of a work force of diverse capabilities within the Department specifically geared for this purpose, sampling guidelines have been introduced to achieve some form of uniformity in the collection process. The taxonomic proficiency of this group of samplers, especially in the identification of unusual species that might be present in the catch, is continually being upgraded through various training in fish taxa given periodically by experts from the Research Division of the DOFM or the University.

4.1.3 Data processing, storage, accessibility and publishing

Data are recorded manually onto specially prepared forms and forwarded to the Fishery State Office according to sub-areas and states for computer storage in a database and analysis. Trained staff from headquarters undertakes the responsibility of generally preparing these data for publication.

The computer software employed for data storage has been named the National Integrated Database Management System (NIDBMS), which was developed specifically for the purpose by staff belonging to the Department and experts from Canada. Access to these data by outsiders via telephone lines is now made possible, but permission must first be obtained from the management concerned to ensure data safety within the Department is not compromised.

The processed data and relevant information related to fish landings and the fisheries are published yearly by the DOFM as Annual Fisheries Statistics.

4.2 Data analyses

Data on the catch and efforts of fishing gears in operation are periodically analyzed to obtain up-to-date information on the gear's performance as well as to generate some estimation on the sustainable exploitation of the resources. Much emphasis is generally placed on the trawlers for their greater ability to exploit the demersal resources compared to traditional gears. On these aspects, the following methods are employed:

4.2.1 Catch trends

Catch trends, either as landings or CPUE, of the respective gear under investigation denote the gear's performance in the fishery. Assuming each individual gear in the group follows a similar pattern of fishing (e.g. number of days at sea, number of hours the gear is set in the water, etc.) and that the total number of gears operating kept constant, the observed trend provides some forecast of the state of the fishery as well as the expected future catches. When the fishery is doing well, the trend should be on the rise or fluctuated along a given horizontal line. When problems arise in a fishery, such as the amount of fish resources are being gradually diminished, the observed trend would likely to be decreasing.

4.2.2 Surplus production models

The general absence of mathematical models specifically developed for use on tropical fish stocks means that models initially developed for the temperate stocks are also being used cautiously to provide some estimates on the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) from the fishery. In this, the use of surplus production models (particularly Schaefer's and Fox's Models) gains rather a wide acceptance in Malaysia.

The concept of surplus production models to produce maximum yield was first introduced by Graham (1938) and modified by Schaefer (1954) and Fox (1970). Two forms of production function were widely used here: the logistic Schaefer (1954) and exponential Fox (1970) models. These models are based on the concept that the stock is considered as a big "lump" of biomass and no attempt is made to model on an age or length base.

The following equations are employed in the analyses using the two models. The Schaefer model is given by:

where Y(i) is the catch in year i (i = 1, 2, 3, ...., n), f(i) is the total level of fishing effort, and a,b are estimated parameters. From this, the level of effort that produces maximum sustainable yield (MSY) and the actual MSY can be deduced, given by:

Similarly, the Fox model is given by:

In multigear fisheries such as those in Malaysia, the effort f(i) used in these analyses is the total standard effort (f _{Tot Std}), estimated by standardizing all other gears (j) that exploit similar resources within the area to the standard gear (s) through the following formula:

where X_s, X_j are the number of fishing effort units (e.g. days, hours) of the standard gear, s, and other gear, j, respectively; and Y_s, Y_j are the total catch (in weight) of standard gear, s, and other gear, j, respectively. Given this, K_j = (Y_j/X_j)/(Y_s/X_s) is a measure of relative catch per unit of effort for the given gear types.

4.3 Monitoring the state of fish resources

Besides monitoring the fishing capacity of the various gears in operation, DOFM also monitors periodically the state of the fish resources to enable up-to-date management remedial actions to be taken to conserve and enhance the fishery resources if required. The stock assessment programmes normally undertaken are fish resource surveys. The main objective of such surveys is to provide the latest estimates on the demersal and pelagic fish stocks, in terms of density or biomass, both in the coastal as well as in the offshore waters of Malaysia.

4.3.1 Demersal fish resource surveys

Demersal resource surveys in the coastal waters (less than 30 nautical miles from shore) in one part of the country or another within the last three and a half decades are common, being almost an annual affair. The first of such surveys was probably the exploratory trawling conducted by MV SELAYANG in the area between 10 - 50 m deep on the west coast of the Peninsula in 1965 (cited in Chee et al., 1998), which provided an average catch rate of commercial and trash fish of about 168.6 kg/hour. On the east coast, the first demersal survey undertaken in 1967 recorded a catch of around 438 kg/hour (cited in Mohd Taupek et al., 1999).

Numerous surveys ensued even up to present times (Ahmad Adnan, 1984, 1986, 1988a, 1988b; Mohd Taupek and Ibrahim, 1990), but within the Malaysian EEZ only two comprehensive surveys have so far been completed: the first in 1987 by the research vessel RV Rastrelliger (Anon. 1988), and second, being the most recent, in 1998, by KK Manchong. In this last survey, average catch rates of 55.3 kg/hour (west coast Peninsula), 29.7 kg/hour (east coast Peninsula), 138.1 kg/hour (Sarawak) and 126.0 kg/hour (west Sabah) were obtained (Abu Talib and Mohd Taupek, 1999).

Comparison between KK Manchong (1998) and RV Rastrelliger (1987) in similar waters provided some alarming results. Demersal fish biomass had declined drastically on the west and east coasts of Peninsular Malaysia (by 60 percent and 88 percent, respectively), and only slightly in Sarawak (by 14 percent), but of still considerable concern in Sabah (by 44 percent) (Abu Talib and Mohd Taupek, 1999). In all the surveys, the 'swept area' method, using a trawl as the main sampling gear, was adopted.

The 'swept area' method provides an estimate on the density of fish per unit area and also valuable information regarding the fish distribution and species composition. The area to be surveyed is first demarcated into grids to determine the actual area of coverage. Grid size is dependent on the sampling density; a small grid indicating a high sampling density is to be attempted, and vice versa. Standard one-hour trawl stations are placed at random within each of the grids, covering all the respective areas. Trawl fishing is conducted at the stations using a standard speed (4 knots for fish and 2.5 knots for prawn) and a warp length to depth ratio of 5:1, and the catch obtained analyzed (usually in terms of weight and number).

4.3.2 Estimating the fish biomass

If the weight of catch per haul is C_w, then C_w/t is the catch per unit time when t is the duration of the trawl haul. If a is the area swept by the trawl haul, then a/t represents the area swept per unit time. The effective net opening is estimated by using other methods, such as the SCANMAR Trawl Monitoring System. The weight of catch per unit area is thereby given as:

The mean weight of catch per unit area (C_w/a)_mean divided by q (the catchability coefficient) gives the average biomass per unit area. The catchability coefficient represents the amount of fish caught by the trawl relative to that which manages to escape. When q=0.5, only 50 percent of the fish in the path of the trawl were caught. When q=1.0, all of the fish in the path of the trawl were assumed to be caught. The biomass (B) of the whole area surveyed (A) is:

Pelagic fish species were normally excluded from the biomass calculation because they do not remain permanently in the bottom layers of the sea to be available to the trawl. Pelagic fish also tend to show schooling behaviour and are, therefore, not uniform in their distribution.

4.3.3 Estimating the exploitable potential

Gulland's formula (in Sparre and Venema, 1992), given by:

is used to estimate the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) when stocks are unexploited or in the virgin state. In this case, M is the natural mortality coefficient and B_v is the virgin biomass. If the yield follows the Fox Model, MSY is determined by:

Gulland's formula was modified by Cadima (in Sparre and Venema, 1992) to determine the MSY of exploited stocks. In this case, M is the natural mortality, Y is the yield and B_c is the current exploited biomass. MSY is given by:

For stocks that are exploited, MSY can also be calculated using the equations proposed by Garcia et al. (1989) given by:

based on the Schaefer Model, or:

based on the Fox Model. As before, Y is the current yield, M is the natural mortality coefficient and B_c is the current biomass.

In determining MSY, two values of q were normally used (i.e. q = 0.6 and q = 1.0). Three values of M (i.e. 0.6, 1 and 2) can be used to provide options in different scenarios. The current yield taken from the area surveyed was generally estimated from the latest landings of commercial trawlers operating within the area.

4.3.4 Estimating the exploitation rate

The exploitation rate (E) is a fraction of total death (Z) caused by fishing (F). Since F=Y/B_c and Z=F+M, the exploitation rate can be estimated by:

4.3.5 Length frequency data analysis

Length frequency data analyses on selected species were generally undertaken to extract the von Bertalanffy growth parameters, mortality and exploitation rates by species.

4.3.6 Maturity studies on fish and cephalopods

Development stages of fish gonads were generally differentiated as immature (I-II), maturing (III-VI) and spent (VII) based on visual observation. The sex ratios of male to female fish were also usually calculated. To determine the maturity index of female cephalopods, the Nidamental Gland Index (NGI = nidamental gland length/dorsal mantle length X 100) was used, and for males the Hetecocyt Index (HI = hetecocyt length/dorsal mantle length X 100) was used (Mansor et al., 1999).

4.3.7 Pelagic fish resource surveys

Compared to demersal surveys, the use of acoustic surveys to estimate the amount of pelagic fish was less common. The first comprehensive acoustic survey, covering part of the coastal waters and all parts of the Malaysian EEZ, was by the research vessel RV Rastrelliger in 1986-87. In early 1994, a DOFM training vessel, KL Paus, attempted a similar survey in the coastal and offshore waters on the west coast of the Peninsula, but results obtained were unconvincing. The MV SEAFDEC acoustic surveys, conducted collaboratively by Malaysian and Thai researchers, estimated pelagic fish abundance in the waters of the Gulf of Thailand and east coast of Peninsular Malaysia during the pre-Northeast Monsoon (September 1995) and post-Northeast Monsoon periods (April/May 1996). The survey was later extended to Sarawak and Sabah waters in July-August 1996 (pre-Monsoon) and May 1997 (post-Monsoon).

The most recent acoustic survey was the one conducted in 1998 by another DOFM training vessel, KL Cermin. Using the scientific echo sounder Furuno FQ-70M, the survey provided pelagic fish biomass estimates of 311 000 tonnes (west coast Peninsula), 733 000 tonnes (east coast Peninsula) and 1 705 000 tonnes (Sarawak and Sabah) (Raja Bidin et al., 1998). No distinguishable signs of pelagic stock depletion were observed on comparison with estimates obtained by earlier surveys.

4.3.8 Present status of the fish resources

At present, overexploitation of demersal fish resources probably occurs in most parts of the Malaysian waters. Areas that have now been identified include the coastal and offshore waters of both the west and east coasts of Peninsular Malaysia, and the coastal waters of both Sarawak and west Sabah. In the offshore waters of Sarawak and Sabah, the demersal resources are still being under exploited and thus still provide potential for further expansion of the deep-sea trawl fishery. The pelagic fish resources in Malaysian waters to date have still not shown any clear sign of excessive exploitation and their fisheries can probably still accommodate further expansion.

4.4 Fish conservation and enhancement programmes

Conservation and enhancement measures were undertaken by the DOFM for a number of reasons, one of which was to alleviate the declining coastal demersal stocks first observed in the mid-1970s. Such measures include the building of artificial reefs made from specific units of building material as sanctuaries and breeding grounds for the aquatic resources and defining specific stretches of waters as protected areas and Marine Parks.

The use of old tyres as the unit building material of artificial reefs was extremely popular at one time, as these items were known to have high durability in water and also were non-toxic when decomposed (Sukarno et al., 1994). Reefs were also made from other materials such as concrete, condemned fishing vessels, plastics (PVC or FRP), natural rocks and parts of trees (such as stems and palm leaves).

In 1975, the first artificial reef using old tyres was launched at the Pulau Telur (Kedah) coastal waters on the west coast of the Peninsula by DOFM (Sukarno et al., 1994). In 1984, a nation-wide campaign was launched by the Honourable Minister of Agriculture for the purpose of collecting old tyres for reef-building. A targeted amount of 1.4 million old tyres was initially specified, these to be assembled in complex pyramidal blocks comprising of 28 000 units or more per site. By the end of 1993, an estimated three million old tyres had been collected and placed at 67 coastal sites around the country (38 sites on the east coast Peninsula, 16 on the west coast Peninsula, six in Sarawak and seven in Sabah) at depth ranging between 15-25 m (Sukarno et al., 1994). Fish life developed positively at these sites, but making an accurate assessment of the actual abundance was difficult. At one site, an angling catch rate of 8.7 kg/hour/man was mentioned.

The creation of marine protected areas (such as the Marine Parks) is another important measure to curb the decline in the coastal demersal resources. By this, the surrounding waters enclosing certain islands from shore up to a distance of three km were totally prohibited from any form of fishing. To facilitate the proper management and administration of these parks, the DOFM has established Marine Park Centres on some of the major islands. These Centres, which help provide information to visitors on the various interesting features present on the islands under their jurisdiction, are staffed by DOFM personnel. Well equipped for such educational purposes, these Centres also serve as a base for research, enforcement and monitoring of activities in the park areas.

In Malaysia, the endeavour to establish marine parks was first initiated in the early 1980s. In late 1983, the Ministry of Agriculture took responsibility for protecting and conserving some strategically located important islands and their surrounding maritime waters in a more effective manner. The Minister was empowered to establish any area within Malaysian fisheries water as a marine park and marine reserve for the purposes of:

1) protection of marine life;

2) protection, preservation and management of breeding areas, particularly of rare and endangered species;

3) natural regeneration of aquatic life in depleted areas;

4) promotion of scientific research;

5) preservation and enhancement of the natural state and productivity, and

6) regulation of recreational activities to avoid irreversible damage to the environments.

To date, a total of 40 islands have been declared as Marine Parks of Malaysia. While recent assessments on the implementation of these measures had indicated some measures of success, more efforts are still needed to stem the general degradation of the fish resources.

5. FUTURE OUTLOOKS

In light of recent findings, the DOFM is at present in the process of formulating two major research programmes under the Eighth Malaysia Plan (2001-2005):

5.1 Management of sustainable capture fisheries programme

Activities proposed under this programme include:

(a) Monitoring of fish landings: Monitoring fish catches of vessels operating in the coastal and offshore marine waters, as well as those from the inland water bodies and rivers.

(b) Management of fishing activities: Economic feasibility studies on the coastal and offshore vessels employing commercial and traditional gears.

(c) Monitoring the status of fish resources: Fish resource surveys (both demersal and pelagic) in the coastal and offshore waters; prawn resource surveys; studies on the spawning season of fish, crustaceans and cephalopods; studies on the distribution of fish eggs and larvae.

(d) Monitoring and development of fishing technology: Development of echo-friendly fishing gears and fish juvenile excluder devices.

(e) Conservation and enhancement of fishery resources: Ecosystem studies on mangroves, sea grass and coral reefs; studies in marine, brackish water and freshwater biodiversity; sea ranching; conservation of endangered species.

5.2 Fisheries development programme

Activities proposed under this programme include:

(a) Capture fisheries development in Peninsular Malaysia: Fish resource surveys on the high seas and international waters (Indian Ocean and South China Sea); studies on the feasibility of using purse seining and hooks and lines on the high seas and international waters; studies on FAD designs for recreational fishing on the high seas.

(b) Capture fisheries development in Sarawak: Fishing gear development in offshore waters; development of recreational fishing; studies on fishing gear development in untrawlable areas.

(c) Capture fisheries development in Sabah: Fishing gear development in offshore waters; development of recreational fishing; development of tuna fisheries; studies on fishing gear development in untrawlable areas.

6. REFERENCES

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Ahmad Adnan, N. 1984. Seventh trawl survey of the coastal waters off the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia (April-May 1984). Fisheries Bulletin No. 109, Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia.

Ahmad Adnan, N. 1986. Eighth trawl survey of the coastal waters off the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia (October-November 1986). Fisheries Bulletin No. 111, Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia.

Ahmad Adnan, N. 1988a. Eighth trawl survey of the coastal waters off the east coast of Peninsular Malaysia (June-August 1988). Fisheries Bulletin No. 112, Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia.

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Tiews, K. 1965. Bottom fish resources investigation in the Gulf of Thailand and an outlook on further possibilities to develop the marine fisheries in Southeast Asia. Arch. Fisch. Wiss. XVI (1): pp.76-108.