0727-B1
Wally Menne[1]
New thinking in conservation circles is that habitat loss is the greatest threat to biodiversity. With forests, this has been accompanied by an understanding of how activities outside forests can harm their integrity. In this context, it will be shown how timber plantations contribute to the degradation of forests and associated plant communities in South Africa.
Since European settlers arrived, South Africa has seen a steady decline in the extent and viability of natural vegetation. Forest losses resulted mainly from logging and agriculture. Whilst it is agreed that the establishment of timber plantations has taken some logging pressure off remaining forests, there is both active and passive damage arising from the way these plantations are established and managed. Because the areas selected for timber growing are often where forests occur, timber plantations usually come into conflict with forest ecosystems, which can also include wetlands and grasslands. Damage to forests caused by plantations can be direct, as with seed encroachment, or indirect, as when rural communities' traditional farmland becomes occupied by plantations, and people are forced to move into protected forest areas.
South Africa cannot cope with existing problems arising from timber plantations, yet there is pressure to allow more in order to meet external demand for wood. The Forest Stewardship Council has contributed to the problem by certifying plantations as so-called "sustainably managed forests". Similarly, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations' inclusion of plantations in forest cover estimates encourages the mistaken belief that plantations are an adequate substitute for forests.
Reassessment of the need for more plantations is needed in order that the remaining forests in South Africa might be saved. The real issue here is to restore damaged forests and to reverse the decline in those that still function.
The Timberwatch Coalition was formed in 1995 and officially launched in April 1997. The coalition is a voluntary union of non-governmental environmental organisations and individuals that share a deep concern with regard to the impacts of industrial timber plantations on the environment in Southern Africa. This paper is an outcome of many years of personal observation of the deteriorating status of natural vegetation in South Africa (SA), together with involvement in the eradication of alien invading plants and experience of cultivating more than a thousand indigenous (native) plant species ex situ.
The insidious effects of industrial activities within the catchments of our forests are yet to be fully understood. Proper analyses of these activities are needed in order to know whether they benefit the country as a whole, and not just a privileged sector, at the expense of the environment, the taxpayer, and poor rural people.
Historically, forest exploitation was mainly by European settlers, who cleared forests to make way for agriculture, and to obtain timber for industrial and household uses. The destruction and fragmentation of forests by previous generations has reduced the area of closed canopy forests substantially and those that remain are under severe pressure as urban sprawl and industrial agriculture take their toll. Most people in the region use traditional medicines, many derived from organisms found in forests, and the full impact of unsustainable gathering of medicinal material from a diminishing resource has yet to be felt.
'Typical' forests are estimated to cover +0,6 % of the land surface of South Africa, but there are much larger areas (+ 3,4 %) that have a vegetation type known as 'thicket'. The largest biome in South Africa is 'savanna' which includes deciduous 'woodland', which is estimated to cover an area of about 26 million ha. It is believed that in terms of International agreements to which South Africa is party, both thicket and woodland are technically forests. (#1)
Mist Belt forest in KZN Midlands - Dense growth on margins protects against fire and alien invasion
A Northern concept of 'forest' tends to be imposed on countries such as South Africa where far greater ecosystem and species complexity make classification extremely difficult. Areas that appear to fit the 'northern' definition of forests have been given greater recognition and protection than those that do not. Attempts to change this perception met with opposition until after the Rio Earth Summit, when greater awareness of the value of biodiversity entered the debate. CITES, the International Convention on the Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora, has focussed on the protection of individual species, but this has done little to prevent biodiversity loss when natural habitat is converted into agricultural, industrial, and urban landscapes. In most cases vegetation is destroyed before a full assessment could take place.
It can be argued that agriculture has transformed the largest land area, and therefore caused the most damage. However, most agricultural areas were established many years ago and what is of concern is the last remaining natural areas. The focus of this paper is on industrial timber plantations (ITPs) in their various forms. Large industrial plantings have the greatest potential to cause damage the environment. However, 'woodlots' have similar impact as they multiply and invade, eventually becoming a large single ITP. The problem of plantation trees escaping into natural areas is very serious. An estimated 1,6 million hectare awaits the attention of the SA plantation industry.
In parts of SA where forests cover larger areas, such as Knysna in the southern Cape, much forest was destroyed by logging and replaced with ITPs in the early part of the last century. Although it is no longer encouraged, this still happens when a small patch of forest is an inconvenient obstacle to the establishment of a larger plantation, or when plantations (and forest) are felled between rotations. The narrow but ambiguous SA definition of forest encourages the view that woodland and thicket are worthless. A lack of adequate monitoring and enforcement of the local timber planting permit system has led to a situation where illegal plantations are established with impunity, or permit conditions simply ignored. (#2)
There has been much research into the impact of alien vegetation including plantations on water resources. Studies have shown how both plantations and jungles of escaped plantation timber species, particularly Australian Acacias and Eucalypts, consume excessive volumes of water. (#3)
A study undertaken in the 1972 clearly illustrates how plantations can consume more water than is directly available in the area where they are planted, and then encroach on the water belonging to adjacent properties. The author commented: "In effect, water piracy occurs". (#4)
At Amangwe forest, situated in Northern Kwa Zulu-Natal near Richards Bay, a relict population of ancient Yellowwoods (Afrocarpus falcatus) started to die simultaneously after the surrounding area was planted to Eucalyptus ITPs during the late 1980's. It would appear to be more than coincidence that trees estimated to be several hundreds of years of age should go into decline all at the same time. (Personal observation) (#5)
Less obvious impacts that have not been as well documented, also affect forests negatively. They can be direct or indirect.
· Loss of habitat
Birds and mammals that have evolved in bush-clump/grassland mosaic, where small non-contiguous patches of forest occur within grassland, need both vegetation types. For instance, some birds that nest within forest are dependant on grasslands for much of their food and nesting material. Similarly, grazing herbivores need to forests for shelter, and refuge from predators. Only protecting the forest, whilst allowing the grassland to be converted into timber plantations or some other monoculture, must affect species that depend on both habitats.
South African wetlands range from large open marshes in the upper catchments of mountain ranges to steaming, jungle-like swamp forests along the subtropical eastern coast. The most vulnerable are in the coastal zone where deep porous sandy soils make it possible for ITPs to lower the water table over an entire area. Perennial streams and pans become seasonal or disappear completely in areas where plantations have been established. From an ecological perspective wetland loss can result in local extinctions. Many non-wetland animals depend heavily on wetland plants and animals for food. Drying out, whether seasonal or complete, jeopardises the migration of frogs, and can threaten their genetic viability. Since negative publicity around the actions of plantation companies has created some embarrassment, one of the companies, Mondi, has sponsored a national programme to rehabilitate wetlands. (#6)
· Damage to forest eco-tone
SA forests are more vulnerable because they tend to occur in small, irregular, non-contiguous patches resulting from fragmentation by fire, limited suitable habitat in sheltered areas on mountains, clearing of forests for agriculture, and availability of water. The ratio of forest area to the length of the forest margin, along where the eco-tone has evolved, is much lower than in larger forests. (Pers. com. K Cooper) It is common for ITPs to be planted against forest margins, ignoring timber industry guidelines. The worst impacts are felt as plantation trees grow taller, shading and drying out the forest margin. Species that normally inhabit the eco-tone can no longer survive there. Forest trees fill the gap between plantation and forest. When the plantation is felled, the forest margin becomes exposed to wind intrusion that affects very sensitive areas inside the forest. Poorly trained and equipped plantation contract workers often allow trees to fall against or into forest, and vehicles use makeshift roads that encroach into the forest margin. (#7)
· Soil Erosion
Despite claims that plantations help prevent soil erosion, the truth is somewhat different: Herbicide is used to eradicate natural vegetation that may compete with plantation saplings. The loss of the binding effect of indigenous grassland species exposes planted slopes to topsoil loss. This can be worse when the "pitting" or "ridging" methods of plantation establishment are used. As plantations become established further soil is lost when groundcover species become shaded out and die. When plantations are cut down, the soil is disturbed, and exposure to wind and rain and causes more erosion. Burning slash destroys humus in the soil that would normally absorb rain and slow down run-off.
The increased silt-load in run-off from plantations (once the grassland catchment of a particular forest patch) can cause abnormally high erosion along streams that flow through the forest. Undercut stream banks and exposed roots result in trees being easily toppled by wind. This in turn opens up the canopy, letting in light that encourages the germination of alien seeds that have blown or been washed in from the adjacent plantation.
· Soil Compaction
Along the coast of northern KwaZulu-Natal, the level terrain has made it possible for timber companies to use heavy machinery. This can cause compaction of the soil through vibration. Rather as vibrators are used to compact concrete slabs in construction, heavy tractors and mechanised felling equipment cause a layer of densely packed soil particles to develop below the surface, over a greater area than just where the vehicles have been active. This can have negative implications for regeneration of the eco-tone. Compaction may not present a problem to the continued use of the land for timber plantations, but reforestation or other agricultural use could have substantial rehabilitation costs.
· Roads
Access roads into plantations established on steeper slopes threaten slope stability and can cause major wash-aways and landslides if not properly constructed and maintained. Often they are routed through or against forest patches. After removal of timber these roads are usually neglected and this can lead to further damage when rainstorms occur.
· Fire
ITPs that are too close to forest margins expose them to fire damage. Of particular concern is fire igniting the peat beds that form the substrate within bogs that support wetland vegetation and in particular our very limited swamp forest. This happens when plantations are established too close to wetlands and the peat layer dries out. Fires usually start within an adjacent plantation area when slash is burned after felling, amongst other causes. Once ignited the peat beds can burn for years, leaving a dangerous layer of hot ash. Further impacts occur when alien vegetation associated with plantations (particularly Triffid Weed), is ignited and fire spreads into forests.
· Alien invading plants
Most plantation trees used in South Africa are invasive and in the case of Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus species and hybrids) and Wattle (Australian Acacia species), particularly difficult to eradicate. (#8) A biological control agent for Acacia mearnsii (Black Wattle), in the form of an insect, Melanterius maculatus, has been available for the past 15 years, but resistance from the Wattle Industry has prevented its release. The astronomical cost of clearing areas that have been invaded must now be borne by the State using public funds, and by other landowners with their own resources. (#9)
In addition to the problems with plantation species, there are a number of very aggressive invading plant species that appear to cohabit with plantations. These include Solanum mauritianum (Bugweed), Rubus rigidus (American Bramble) and Chromolaena odorata (Triffid Weed). The plantation industry appears to be unwilling or unable to manage the spread of alien invading plants in the areas that they are active.
Many alien species bear fruit that is attractive to wild birds, and this, together with wind and water, results in their spreading into the most isolated sensitive natural areas. The cost to the country of controlling the spread of these plants runs into many millions of Rands annually, yet the plantation industry is still not held fully responsible, and are in fact subsidised through government funding of alien eradication efforts such as those of the Working for Water programme.
Eucalyptus plantations in northern KZN - Do not support biodiversity and use excessive water. They are not forests!
These include the damage caused to forests caused by animals, both domestic and wild, and humans that are displaced from their traditional homes by the expansion of plantations into areas that have traditionally supported and provided homes for large numbers of people and their livestock.
Another problem arises from so-called 'woodlots' that are planted on the basis of a formal agreement between a timber company and a member of the community. This binds the grower to selling the timber to the company concerned and so has the effect of discouraging the growers from using the timber for any purpose other than for sale to the mill. Timber for all their domestic requirements still tends to be obtained from nearby forests.
The consolidation of ITPs into large parcels held by a single company has had negative connotations for local economies, especially through the increased use of external contract labour and the centralisation of buying functions at head offices. This has the effect of increasing local unemployment and homelessness, and people previously employed and housed on farms often have no choice but to move into nearby forests in order to survive.
The 'International 'Plantations Campaign', which is coordinated by the World Rainforest Movement (WRM), has identified many impacts caused by timber plantations that have negative implications for forests, as well as for human communities that rely on forests for their survival. In spite of this, global players in the timber industry continue to ignore the problems, and to push their own agenda in the name of profit and power. (#10)
It appears that the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), has been hi-jacked by the timber multinationals to help with the 'green washing' of ITPs. The FSC was put in place to protect forests from over-exploitation, but by helping to promote plantations, there is a good chance that they will be 'shooting themselves in the foot'. Timberwatch is in favour of a separate certification system for ITPs. It comes down to peoples right to choice and to the truth.
EFI (The European Forestry Institute) has prepared a rather confusing 'country report' on South Africa's Forest and Plantation resources. It states: "South Africa has one of the highest proportions of its forest area, of any country, certified for environmentally sustainable management (ISO and FSC)." This clearly refers to ITPs and not forests, as very few if any of the forests in SA have been certified. (#11)
The recent OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) Environmental Outlook Report states: "Another potential threat to forest ecosystem quality is the increasing development of intensive plantation forests"(Page 127), and "forest quality is degrading in many areas in both OECD and non-OECD regions as natural forests are replaced with mono-culture, intensively produced plantation forests, and industrial pollution reaches forest areas".
However, it goes on to make the same mistake as EFI, lumping plantations with forests. Most statements made regarding "Forest Ecosystem Quality", and "Environmental Services Provided by Forests", could only refer to natural forests, yet by implication, plantations are included. (#12)
The FAO forest definitions are grossly inadequate, yet are clung to by those whose purposes they serve. The South African department of Water affairs and Forestry (DWAF) has followed the "plantations are planted forests" path, because it is convenient not to question that assumption. Estimates of forest cover that include ITPs are easily misinterpreted. (#13)
Guidelines for the protection and management of forests should always be identify timber plantations as such, and not confuse them with forests. If calling plantations 'forests' was applied universally, fruit tree orchards could also be classified as forests, and wheat fields as grasslands! 'Silviculture' should be used to describe the cultivation of ITPs, not 'forestry'.
The connection between ITPs and forest degradation needs to be acknowledged by decision makers, and dealt with in a meaningful way. Only dealing with the symptoms, as has been the case with the Dukuduku Forest in KZN province, will not overcome the increasing threat of deliberate over-exploitation as well as the indirect consequences of poor resource management.
Improved regulations, and the political will to enforce the law in respect of illegal timber plantations, are essential for the survival of our remaining forests.
Bainbridge, W & J. Allerton, 2002 (#2) Preliminary Review of the Afforestation Licence Application Process in Kwazulu-Natal (KZN Department of Agriculture and Environment Affairs)
Dennill, GB, D.Donnelly, K.Stewart & FAC Impson, 1999 (#9) Insect agents used for the biological control of Australian Acacia species and Paraserianthes lophantha (willd.) Nielsen (fabaceae) in South Africa - African Entomology Memoir No 1
Le maitre, DC, DB Versfeld & RA Chapman, 2000 (#3) The impact of invading alien plants on surface water resources in South Africa: a preliminary assessment. Water SA Vol. 26, no 3 http://www.wrc.org.za/wrcpublications/wrcwatersa/wsajuly2000/1220.pdf
Le Maitre, DC, DF Scott and C Colvin (#5) A review of information on interactions between vegetation and groundwater Water SA, April 1999, Vol. 25, No 2 http://www.wrc.org.za/wrcpublications/wrcwatersa/wsa-apr99.htm#review
Low, B & A Rebelo, 1996 (#1) Vegetation Of South Africa, Lesotho And Swaziland (Isis10) http://siftp.gov.za/node/isis2000/parsed/isis2000.isis10.sgml.htm
Whitmore, JS, 1972 (#4) An estimation of the possible effects of land management practices on run-off from the Catchment Control Areas in the Natal Midlands (SA Department of Water Affairs, Hydrological Research Division) May, 1972
(#6) Mondi Wetlands Project http://www.mondi.co.za/wetlands/pg1.htm
(#7) Kwazulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service Guidelines to Address Some Biodiversity Concerns in Industrial and Commercial Timber Plantations - September 1998
(#8) Alien Regulations Amendment Bill 1999 http://www.gov.za/gazette/notices/1999/2485.htm
(#10) WRM Plantations Campaign http://www.wrm.org.uy/index.html
(#11) European Forestry Institute - Country reports http://www.efi.fi/cis/english/creports/south_africa.html
(#12) OECD - Environmental Outlook Report http://www1.oecd.org/publications/e-book/9701011e.pdf
(#13) FAO definitions http://www.fao.org/forestry/fop/fopw/paper/def/doc.doc
| [1] Member of the Timberwatch
coalition www.timberwatch.org.za.
P.O. Box 30577, Mayville, South Africa, 4058. Tel: 27 31 2014648; Mobile:
27 82 4442083; Fax: 27 31 2019958; Email: [email protected] |