John L. Woods
JOHN L. WOODS IS Director of the UNDP Development Support Communication Service for Asia and the Pacific, in Bangkok. This service is currently managing the communications and training aspects of FAO's Community Forestry Development project in Nepal.
Better linkage needs to be created between two kinds of technical assistance: development planning and communications resources
The basic objective of most development programmes is to create a bridge between people who possess knowledge of technology and people who need it. Leaders in the development field are now realizing that creating new technology does not automatically mean it will be accepted by the intended beneficiaries. The new innovations - high-yielding rice varieties, high-protein diets, family-planning techniques, classroom-teaching techniques, small-industry practices, community-oriented forestry-must be put into practice by people before a development programme is successful. This means one component of the development process must focus on people understanding and participating in the programmes.
During 20 years of working in the development support communications field, I have participated in two generations of communications technical assistance programmes. The first generation of this type of technical assistance concentrated primarily on supplying equipment and building physical facilities for individual communication channels such as radio stations, TV networks, newspapers and audio-visual production centres. More recently a second generation of communications technical assistance programmes has sought to train professional communicators and improve the information delivery capacity of these communication channels. Governments and international agencies have invested large sums of money in creating communications resources to facilitate the transfer of technology.
For the most part, all these investments in communications have had only limited impact on development programmes. There are two basic reasons:-First, development workers have not utilized communication resources properly in the planning and implementation of their development programmes. As a result, most of the communication efforts in the development field tend to focus on public, relations aspects of the programme rather than being an integral element of the transfer of technology! educational process. Also, since communication flow has not been an integral part of development planning, often there is almost no coordination of the information flowing through the various channels of communication. For example, it is very common to have a farm radio broadcast giving different recommendations than the agricultural extension workers in the village. - Second, communications workers do not understand the development process and, therefore, the information flowing through the various channels is not suitable to support development programmes. Handling an educational development message is much different from news, public relations, advertising, and entertainment, in which most channels of communication specialize. The managers of the communications resources must be motivated to support a country's development process and their staff should. be trained to handle development messages correctly.
The resources and tools of communications have long been successfully used for political and commercial activities,. But they have seldom been made an integral part of development; programmes.
A third-generation communication technical assistance is now needed -one which concentrates on helping governments build a linkage between development programmes and communications resources.
An important aspect of stimulating the transfer of technology is to ensure the proper flow of relevant information among the numerous groups of people who are involved. This requires the systematic utilization of all appropriate communications methods, starting at the earliest stages of development planning and continuing through out the programme implementation. While numerous communication resources have long been successfully used for political and commercial activities, they have not often been adopted as an integral part of development programmes. It was against this background that in 1972, Mr. Rudolph A. Peterson, then UNDP Administrator, said, " Development must be carried out with people, not just for them or through them. We must build into an increasing number of UNDP-assisted projects an imaginatively conceived and adequately financed human communication component."
Most countries now have available the basic communications resources that have the capacity of carrying development messages. Examples of these individual channels of communication include mass media (radio, television, newspapers, cinema); audiovisual/educational technology production centres; field cadre programmes (agricultural extension, auxiliary health workers, small industry training personnel, schoolteachers); scientific information clearing-houses; social-survey research organizations; management information systems; and traditional/folk media.
Development workers do not utilize communications resources properly and communications workers do not understand the development process. What is needed is to help governments link development projects to communications resources.
In many cases there is still a great need to improve the capabilities of these individual channels of communication. However, I feel the most urgent need right now is to start getting the proper utilization of these communications resources within the development process. This means encouraging communications workers to take their country's development tasks seriously. Also, it means assisting development planners and implementors to select, programme and coordinate all appropriate communication resources to ensure the flow of relevant development information for development programmes. There are three basic information flows involved in the development process:
VIDEO-TAPED TRAINING PROGRAMME FOR FARMERS IN PERU putting the communications money where it belongs
1. From beneficiaries to planners. Starting at the earliest stages of planning a development programme and going throughout the implementation, there is a need for information about the intended beneficiaries. Information on their needs, attitudes, current practices, and many other characteristics should be one of the inputs for designing relevant development programmes. A continuous monitoring or " feedback" of the reaction of the beneficiaries to the programme is also important. Communication methods utilized for this information flow include pre-project social survey research, certain types of field reporting and management information systems, and some media such as video tape and photography to document field conditions.2. Within the implementation organizational framework. Frequently, the successful implementation of a development programme is hampered by a leek of communication and coordination between the many agencies that must be involved. These include subject-matter researchers, administrative support units such as civil service commissions, field-level workers, non-governmental cooperating agencies, administrators and political leaders, training institutions, e le. There is a constant need for a flow of relevant information related to programme policies, technology and field conditions within the organizational framework. Communications methods utilized for this information flow include many administrative communication techniques such as reports, newsletters, conferences, management information systems, staff development training programmes, information clearing-houses.
3. To the intended beneficiaries. A great amount of effort must be focused on ensuring the systematic information flow to the intended beneficiaries. This flow involves information that is both motivational and educational. For the programme to be successful the beneficiaries must understand, accept, and be able to properly use the innovations which are recommended. Among the communications methods utilized in this information flow are personal channels, such as extension field workers, local leaders and schoolteachers; traditional or folk media such as village plays, puppet plays, etc.; mass media such as radio, posters, publications, mobile units; and all forms of non-formal education.
One component of the development process should focus on people understanding and participating in programmes.
It should be pointed out that communication integrated into development planning and programme implementation does not guarantee dramatic successes. It is no panacea. In fact, the use of communication methods to maximize the information flow can cause strong negative reactions in a poorly conceived and run development programme. Examples can be cited of a programme recommending inappropriate innovations or the use of materials such as fertilizers that are not available. Judiciously used, and starting at the earliest stages of planning, communication support can be one of those important ingredients that contribute to the successful implementation of development programmes.
A third-generation communication technical assistance programme to help governments of developing countries bring about a better operational linkage between development programmes and communication resources is now essential. Development workers must be encouraged to utilize all appropriate communications resources to ensure the systematic flow of relevant information during the planning and implementation of development programmes. Communication workers must be motivated to actively support their country's development efforts and be trained to handle development messages properly. Communication support is only one element in the development process, but an important one for helping people understand, accept and properly use new technology.
There are three basic communication flows within a development programme: downward, upward and horizontally through the system. Many administrators limit their communicating to the downward flow, which is probably the least important in the planning and implementation of a development programme.
Katz and Kahn (1966, Chapter 9) do a thorough analysis of communication flows in an organizational system. They describe downward communication as going along the authority pattern of hierarchical positions; horizontal communications as being among peers at the same organizational level; and upward communication ascending the hierarchical ladder.
Berelson and Steiner (1964, Chapter 9) made the following generalizations: communication down the organizational hierarchy is likely to be critical and to consist of authoritarian instructions; communication up the organizational hierarchy is often inaccurate; horizontal communication tends to be the most accurate, but is often restricted by the organizational structure.
Downward
Most organizational researchers have found that downward communication flows are more frequent than upward flows. Administrators originate a considerable amount of communication that they assume will " trickle down " through the system and eventually cause the intended beneficiaries of the development programme to change their current practices. But too often, certain basic questions are ignored: (a) is the message that is being communicated relevant; (b) is it being understood and acted upon by subordinates within the system; and (c), does it reach the intended beneficiaries ?
Peter Drucker (1966, Chapter 7) suggests that the biggest problem for administrators in making effective decisions is that they too often are talking when they should be listening-one of the major reasons why many development programmes fail.
Upward
During the planning of a development programme and the later monitoring of its progress the upward communication flow is vital. However, as Sagasti (1975, p. 13) points out:
"The single greatest problem in rural development has been the lack of active participation of the local people. In communications terms this means an overemphasis on transmission of information by project managers and staff to the rural people, rather than transmission of information from the rural people to each other and to project staff and development decision-makers."
Most researchers agree that the upward flow of communication in an organization is usually distorted. The nature of the hierarchical structure and. the related reward, system discourages subordinates from passing bad news to their bosses (Wilensky, 1967, p. 42). A superior receives reports that tell him primarily what his subordinates want him to hear (Downs, 1967, p. 118) and almost always contain positive information. Most management information systems are designed to control subordinates rather than to encourage relevant upward communication. What an administrator needs most is the accurate description of problems in programme implementation. Field workers have the information, but are afraid to communicate it to the administrators who desperately need it. A major overhaul in current administrative practices will be required before the upward communication flow can become a valid element in development programme implementation.
Horizontal
At the operational level of implementing a development programme, horizontal communication becomes extremely important, but faces many barriers because of the bureaucratic structure and rules and regulations in most government organizations. It is difficult to establish effective communication linkages between departments and even more so between ministries; between government departments and the private sector or non-governmental organizations it can become almost impossible.
The " gate-keeper" effect of the organizational structure causes massive problems for most administrators who are implementing development programmes. It results in delays of recruiting personnel, of budget approvals, of information on new technology from researchers. In a study of the organizations involved in helping rubber small-holders in south Thailand, James French (1977) commented that administrative obstacles frequently prevented coordination and cooperation between planners and field personnel, even though the need for a single administrative body which would examine and be responsible for all aspects of rubber development had repeatedly been pointed out.
Much of the horizontal communication that does go on at the operational level is informal in nature and bypasses the formal organizational system. But in using informal channels there are definite restrictions on achieving official action. Much more thought is required for facilitating " official" horizontal communication at all levels of the hierarchy in order to improve the implementation of development programmes.
While the identification of these three types of communication flows appears to be fairly elementary, not enough thought is given to properly using them by most administrators of development programmes.
More attention must be focused on improving the upward and horizontal communication flows. The use of the downward communication flow should be evaluated and where possible reduced. The downward communication flow should be closely linked and coordinated with the upward and horizontal communication flows.
KATZ, DANIEL & KAHN, ROBERT L. 1966 The social psychology of organizations. New York, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
BERELSON, BERNARD & STEINER, GARY H. 1964 Human behavior: an inventory of scientific findings. New York, Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc.
DRUCKER, PETER F.1966 The effective executive. New York, Harper and Row.
SAGASTI, HELI E. ENNIS DE. 1975 Effective communication with the rural poor. Washington, Academy for Educational Development.
WILENSKY, HAROLD L. 1967 Organizational intelligence: knowledge and policy in government and industry. New York, Basic Books.
DOWNS, ANTHONY. 1967 Inside bureaucracy. 1967 Boston, Little and Brown.
FRENCH, JAMES H. 1977 An analysis of agricultural extension and education resources for rubber small-holders in south Thailand. University of Hawaii, Honolulu (unpublished Master of Education thesis).
