Indonesia

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Geography, climate and population

Geography

Indonesia is a tropical archipelago country of 17 504 islands. It extends over an area of about 1.9 million km² and the coastline exceeds 54 000 km, which is more than the perimeter of the world and which makes it the country with the second longest coastline after Canada. The major islands are Sumatra, Java, Nusa Tenggara (including Bali), Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku, and Papua (previously Irian Jaya). Most of the major islands have a mountain range running over their entire length. The mountains are of volcanic origin and some volcanos are still active. The elevations of the islands range from 0 to 5 030 m above sea level. Since 2005 the country is divided administratively into 33 provinces. In 2006, the provinces were subdivided into 349 regencies (kabupaten) and 91 cities (kota), 5 656 sub-districts (kecamatan), and 71 563 villages (desa/kelurahan). Jakarta is the capital city of the country, located on the island of Java.

In 2008, the total cultivated area was 37.1 million ha, which is around 20 percent of the total area of the country. Arable land was estimated at 22.0 million ha and the area under permanent crops at 15.1 million ha (Table 1). Farm holdings in Indonesia are relatively small: 34 percent are less than 0.25 ha and a further 25 percent are between 0.25 and 0.50 ha.

Climate

Indonesia is located in a wet tropical region with an average annual rainfall of about 2 700 mm, varying from 1 300 mm in East Nusa Tenggara to 4 300 mm in parts of Papua (Table 2) (Bappenas, 2004).

There are two seasons: the dry season and the wet season. The dry season is influenced by the Australia continental air masses and lasts from March to August. The wet season is influenced by the Asia Continental and Pacific air masses passing over the oceans and lasts from September to March. The heaviest rainfall is usually from November to February.

Temperatures range from 21°C to 33°C, but at higher altitudes the climate is cooler. Humidity is between 60 and 80 percent.

Population

In 2008, total population was almost 227 million, of which 48.5 percent was rural (Table 1). The average household size was 4 persons. Population growth rate decreased sharply, from 1.9 percent per year during the period of 1980-1990 to 1.3 percent per year during the period of 2000-2008. Over time, Indonesia’s population has been concentrated on Java Island, containing 59 percent of the total population while its land area is only 7 percent of the total land area of the country. Therefore, population density in Java was 1 019 persons/km² in 2008, while population density at national level was 119 inhabitants per km².

In 2006, access to improved drinking water sources reached 80 percent (89 and 71 percent for urban and rural population respectively) and sanitation coverage reached 52 percent (67 and 37 percent for urban and rural population respectively). About 60 percent of the households had its own toilet facility. In 2006, total poor people accounted for about 30 million, which is equal to 18 percent of the total population. Level of urban poverty (13 percent) is lower than that of rural areas (22 percent).

Economy, agriculture and food security

In 2009, the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was US$540 274 million, with a value added in agriculture reaching 16 percent of the GDP (Table 1). In 2008, total economically active population was 112 million, of which 37 percent female and 63 percent male. The population economically active in agriculture was estimated at 47.9 million inhabitants, approximately 43 percent of economically active population. Of the population economically active in agriculture, 39 percent is female and 61 percent is male.

Wetlands play a very important role in food production, including rice and secondary crops (maize, cassava, soybean, sweet potatoes, peanut). Total harvested area of paddy reached 11.8 million ha in 2005, which consisted of 10.7 million ha wetland rice (91 percent) and 1.1 million ha dryland rice (9 percent). Total paddy production was 54.1 million tons, of which 51.3 million tons were wetland paddy (95 percent) and 2.8 million tons dryland paddy (5 percent). Productivity of dryland (rainfed) rice is just a little bit more than half of the productivity of wetland rice: 2.56 tons/ha against 4.78 tons/ha.

Though Indonesia produces a large quantity of rice, it is still a rice importer. In the past, it was the largest rice importer, reaching 1.8 million tons of rice in 2002. However, in 2006 import rates did reduce significantly, to as little as 438 000 tons. In addition to food crops, Indonesia is also producing a large number of perennial crops, including rubber, coconut, palm oil, coffee, cocoa, and tea, which are currently exported.

In terms of food security, national rice production is relatively safe and stable. In the year 2000, surprisingly, Indonesia had a rice surplus of more than 2 million tons (Suprapto, 2001). This surplus mainly resulted from favourable weather conditions, increased cropping intensity and rice planting area, and from a decline in the national per capita rice consumption. The domestic food availability has fulfilled the population needs and the average calories availability is 2200 kcal/capita per day.

Water resources and use

Water resources

Total internal natural renewable water resources are estimated at 2 018.3 km³/year (Table 2). Surface water resources are estimated at 1 972.6 km³/year and groundwater resources at 457.4 km³/year. Most of the groundwater, an estimated 90 percent or 411.7 km³/year, returns as base flow to the rivers. It is assumed that only 30 percent of groundwater resources, or 137.2 km³/year, are consumable, called ‘safe yield’ (Table 3) (Bakosurtanal, 2001). Over-abstraction of groundwater in Jakarta has caused saline groundwater to reach about 10 km inland from the coastline and led to land subsidence at a rate of 2-34 cm/year in east Jakarta.

Although water resources are abundant, the seasonal and spatial variation in the rainfall pattern and lack of adequate storage create competition and conflicts among users. Municipal and industrial wastewater is discharged virtually untreated into the waterways causing rapid deterioration in the quality of river water.

Most of the lakes in Indonesia are of volcanic origin. Lake Toba is the largest volcanic lake in the world with an average surface area of 1 100 km² and an average volume of 1 258 km³.

In 2006, total dam capacity reported was 22.49 km³, but total capacity is higher because the capacity was unknown for some dams. In 1995 total dam capacity was estimated at 15.83 km³. The dams with capacity over 1 km³ are Jatiluhur (2.89 km³), Siruar (2.82 km³), Cirata (2.17 km³), Pongkor (1.95 km³), Batu Bokah (1.67 km³), Kotopanjang (1.55 km³) and Riam Kanan (1.20 km³).

Through the development of large dams, Indonesia has progressively been able to extend its water resources utilization so as to support 2 200 MW of hydropower generation, representing 20 percent of the national generating capacity.

Water use

In 2000, total water withdrawal was 113 km³ (Table 4 and Table 5). Water withdrawal for agriculture accounted for 93 km³, or 82 percent, municipalities and industries accounted for 13 km³ (12 percent) and 7 km³ (6 percent) respectively (Figure 1). In 1990, total water withdrawal was estimated at 74 km³ of which 93 percent for agriculture, 6 percent for municipalities and 1 percent for industrial use.

In 2000 surface water and groundwater withdrawal represent 84.4 percent and 15.5 percent respectively of total water withdrawal (Figure 2). In 1990 desalinated water was estimated at 19 million m3.

Of the households 74 percent use groundwater as their clean water sources, while the rest utilizes river water (3.4 percent), piped surface water (21.2 percent), and other water sources (1.4 percent).

Industrial water demand gradually increases over time. Since piped and open surface water supplies are relatively limited where the industries are located, most of industries make use of groundwater as their water sources, particularly in big cities in Java.

Both national and island-by-island water balances are positive, meaning that water availability is higher than consumption level. However, in Java and Nusa Tenggara a water deficit occurs during the dry season (July to October, varying by the province). Even some large and important river areas in Java, including Bengawan Solo, Brantas, Ciliwung, Cimanuk, Citanduy, and Ciujung, are estimated to face water deficit problems during the dry season.

International water issues

Based on a recent river territory inventory, Indonesia has 14 rivers that exceed state boundaries: 5 rivers with Malaysia in Kalimantan island (Baram, Lupar, Sebuku, Sembakung, and Serundong), 3 rivers with Timor Lorosae in Timor island (Loes, Nitibe, and Wini), and 6 rivers with Papua New Guinea in Papua island (Bewani, Fly, Merauke, Sepik, Tami, and Tari) (Witoelar, undated). No records of major issues related to these transboundary rivers exist.

Irrigation and drainage development

Evolution of irrigation development

The development of community irrigation systems started more than two thousand years ago. Modern irrigation systems were introduced in the middle of the nineteenth century. Small irrigation systems developed by the communities in Java reached a total of 1.1 million ha in 1880. This asset was very significant at that time since the total population of Java was only 19.5 million. The development of irrigation systems grew at a rate of 1.21 percent per year in the period 1880-1915, reaching 1.62 million ha in 1915. The Dutch colonial government developed the first large irrigation system, 34 000 ha, in Sidorajo Delta in East Javaby using the Brantas river water flows. A full-technological irrigation and drainage system was first developed during the 1880s in Demak, Central Java, on an area of 33 800 ha. This system was developed in order to meet the hunger caused by drought and flood problems in the area. The “Burgerlijke Openbare Werken” (that later became the Department of Public Works) was developed in 1885 with, among other tasks, the aim of developing irrigation systems. The “Departement van Landbouw” (that later became the Department of Agriculture) was developed in 1905 in Bogor, West Java.

The development of irrigation systems became one of the priorities of the newborn Republic of Indonesia after World War II. The first multi-sector project was proposed in 1948 to develop Jatiluhur dam at Citarum River in West Java to allocate water for irrigation, hydropower, and domestic purposes. In 1969, Indonesia launched its first five-year development programmes (Repelita I). Since then, rice intensification programmes have been increasing. The main objective of the programme was to achieve self-sufficiency in rice. It included supply of irrigation water, use of high yield varieties, fertilizers, and pesticides, and was supported by agricultural extension programmes. The irrigation development programme included rehabilitation of existing irrigation works, expansion of service areas in existing schemes, construction of new irrigation systems, upgrading of the existing irrigation systems, implementation of efficient operation and management programmes, strengthening of water users associations (WUAs), and many other initiatives.

In the first twenty-five years of development, spanning five Repelitas (1969-1993) termed ‘Pembangunan Jangka Panjang I’ (PJP I) or first phase of long-term development, water resources policies were directed to support the development of different sectors with the primary emphasis being on agriculture. About 1.44 million ha were provided with new irrigation systems and 3.36 million ha of existing irrigation systems were either rehabilitated or upgraded through special maintenance.

The second twenty-five-year development period (1994-2019), termed PJP II, started in April 1993 with Repelita VI. The emphasis is on sustainable development and management of water resources. Water resources have been elevated to a full sector level and policies are directed to promoting a more effective and efficient management of water resources in an integrated manner. Greater emphasis is placed on sustaining self-sufficiency in rice and on the operation and maintenance of water resources infrastructure. In addition, the Government is implementing a crash programme in Repelita VI to improve one million ha of village irrigation systems and to develop a 600 000 ha rice estate by swamp reclamation in central Kalimantan.

The irrigation potential of the country is estimated at 10.9 million ha. In 1996, the total area equipped for full control irrigation was 4.43 million ha. In addition, there were 0.70 million ha of ‘simple’ irrigation and 1.96 million ha of village managed schemes. It should be noted, however, that large discrepancies are observed among sources of information, leading to important uncertainties about the areas under irrigation. It was reported that, in 1995, 638 reservoirs, 10 770 weirs, 1 017 barrages, 1 192 pumping stations and 6 792 intakes were used to supply water to an area of 4 600 000 ha. In 1995, irrigation from groundwater reportedly covered an area of 44 209 ha, of which 36 784 ha were served by 834 deep tubewells, 4 204 ha by 363 intermediate tubewells and 14 807 ha by 471 shallow tubewells. In 2005 it is estimated that 99 percent of the total equipped area is irrigated by surface water and 1 percent by groundwater (Figure 3).

Total water managed area covered 9 855 616 ha in 2005 (Table 6). Full control irrigation areas covered 6 722 299 ha (68 percent), consisting of technical, semi-technical, and simple irrigation, while non-equipped cultivated wetlands covered 3 133 317 ha (32 percent), of which 2 088 622 ha were village managed and 1 044 695 cultivated by the state. Of the total equipped area for irrigation 100 percent is irrigated using surface irrigation techniques.

Fields under water management are classed in five types: technical, semi-technical, and simple irrigation, and village-managed wetlands and cultivated swamps (Table 7). Usually the first three types belong to the public works system.

Technical irrigation is an irrigation system in which distribution of water can be fully controlled from the source to the field. It is characterized by permanent canals, control structures, and measuring devices. This irrigation consists of primary, secondary, and tertiary canals, and those canals are fully controlled by the government. In 2005 they served an area of 4 781 860 ha while in 1996 they served an area of 3 328 016 ha.

Semi-technical irrigation systems are characterized by permanent canals and few control or measuring devices. The government usually controls the primary canals which are equipped with measuring devices, while the distribution systems next to those canals are not equipped with measuring devices. This system served an area of 1 257 987 ha in 2005 and 1 099 906 ha in 1996.

Simple irrigation systems are characterized by only few permanent control or distribution structures and may be managed by the farmers. The government may provide a part of the system, for example building the required dam. This system was serving an area of 683 242 ha in 2005 and 697 194 ha in 1996.

Village-managed wetland cultivation is a basic water control system in wetlands, which is developed and managed spontaneously by the farmers. This system served an area of 2 088 622 ha in 2005 and 1 961 496 ha in 1996.

Cultivated swampland is wetland in which its watering mechanisms depend on river water, which is affected by seawater tides. Indonesia has an estimated 39 million ha of coastal and inland swamps. The extent of arable swampland has not been assessed in detail but is estimated to be 7.5 million ha. In 2005, the tidal and non-tidal swamp area mainly used for rice was about 1 044 695 ha and in 1996 1 182 760 ha in 1996.

In 2006, the average cost of developing a public scheme was US$1 630/ha while the average operation and maintenance cost of a public irrigation system was US$390/ha per year.

Role of irrigation in agricultural production, the economy and society

One of the main objectives of irrigation development in Indonesia is to achieve food self-sufficiency, particularly rice, by expanding the cultivation of rice since 1969. By promoting this kind of rice production, combined with land development, irrigation rehabilitation and crop intensification programmes, the country achieved rice self-sufficiency in 1984. However, due to the rapid rate of fertile agricultural land conversion to non-agricultural use (at an average rate of 50 000 ha/year), a prolonged drought and flood period, a precipitous environmental degradation, a reduction in subsidies for agricultural inputs and extension activities, rice self-sufficiency began to become unstable. Since 1994, Indonesia started to import rice to meet the demand or to maintain a national buffer stock, managed by the Bureau of Logistic (BULOG), for market operation in case of rice scarcity, especially during the dry season. However, due to continuous efforts in increasing food production, currently Indonesia could reach almost 100 percent of its rice requirements. The import level is significantly lower (about 2 percent of total national rice production) compared to the past records.

Water resources and related infrastructure development have contributed to agricultural, local and national development through their contribution to increasing the farmers’ average income and providing a consequent poverty alleviation effect.

In 2005, total harvested area of paddy was 11.84 million ha (90.7 percent irrigated and 9.3 percent rainfed) which produced 54.15 tons of paddy.

In 2005 the total harvested irrigated cropped area was 13.39 million ha (Table 6 and Figure 4). The major crops cultivated under full control irrigation are paddy, which account for 10.73 million ha, following maize, groundnuts and soyabeans which account for 1.3 million ha, 0.32 million ha and 0.28 million ha respectively.

Most irrigated areas are planted with rice two times a year and are left fallow or planted with secondary crops (such as maize or other) in the third season. Typical cropping patterns are rice-rice-fallow or rice-rice-secondary crop. In other areas, particularly those close to irrigation channels, rice can be planted up to three times. In general, rice is always available in the field, but in a smaller area in the third season.

Status and evolution of drainage systems

In 1990 total drained area was estimated at 3 350 000 ha.

Water management, policies and legislation related to water use in agriculture

Institutions

The Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia (Undang-Undang Dasar 1945) article 33 states that “production branches which are important to the country and which provide for the needs of the people must be control of the State. Earth and water and all natural resources contained in their bodies are managed under authority of the State and utilized in the interests of the welfare of the nation”. This enshrines the concept that Indonesia’s natural resources belong to the state and are to be used for the welfare of the Indonesian people. Operational policy of this basic rule is explained in Law (Undang-Undang) number 7 of 2004. This law reiterates the constitutional principle that water resources have a social function: water exploitation should be used for the highest prosperity of the people and should be controlled by the state. This law promulgates the institution of two departments in association with water resources. The Department of Public Works is authorized to coordinate all efforts and activities for the planning, detailed engineering, supervision, business development, maintenance, as well as legislation and utilization of surface water resources, which also includes water springs. The Department of Mining and Energy is authorized to manage groundwater resources, which also includes thermal spring waters. The institutional framework is, in fact, relatively complex, because it involves many agencies and each agency might produce individual regulations (including Government Regulation, Presidential Decrees and Decisions, Ministerial Regulations, Directorate Regulations, Governor and District Regulations) to control water resources (Syaukat, 2000).

Water management

Issues of water resources management, both quantitative and qualitative, are increasingly important in Java and other islands, including Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sulawesi, Papua, but with different characterization of problems and hence different approaches to be undertaken. Problems in Java are characterized by overpopulation, as well as water and other natural resources degradation and depletion. The other islands are mainly characterized by water and other natural resources degradation because of widespread deforestation and improper open mining practices and new plantations.

Overexploitation of groundwater has resulted in some critical problems, including contamination by pollutants entering groundwater, salinization of aquifers and land subsidence. Land subsidence is mainly due to strong decrease of deep groundwater levels in areas with high groundwater extraction. Over-extraction of groundwater results in external costs which include: costs due to the lowering of the shallow groundwater table and the table in deep wells, costs due to land subsidence and costs due to pollution of shallow groundwater (Syaukat, 2000).

These conditions require an improvement in water resources management in Indonesia. Both surface water and groundwater should be integrated in their management and treatment. According to this approach, a better water resources planning, development, and management could be attained.

Finances

From the end of the 1960s, the government made large investments for land and water resources development to achieve food self-sufficiency. However, as Indonesia gained confidence in securing its national food supply, attention gradually began to include the industrial sector, to support export promotion and import substitution. Therefore, since the beginning of 1990, government investments in land and water resources have gradually decreased. In this period, investments in land and water resources were mainly focused on improved operation and maintenance of irrigation infrastructure and facilities. Funding for the development of this sector mainly came from national budgets and international donors, including the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), Japan Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC), and the Asian Development Bank (ADB). For example, IBRD financed groundwater development project in 11 provinces from 1993 to 1999, and integrated tidal swamp development in 3 provinces from 1994 to 2000. ADB financed irrigation sector projects in 4 provinces in Sulawesi from 1994 to 2000. The main objective of all these projects is increasing land productivity and food crop production.

Policies and legislation

During the government period 2004-2009, the following five strategic policies on water resources management were determined:

1. Water resource conservation: This policy is designed to conserve and maintain the availability and functions of water resources in order to meet the water needs not only for current generation, but also for the future generations. The efforts are directed to increase water availability, to improve water quality, as well as to recover and improve the capacity of the environment.
2. Optimal use of water resources: This policy includes various efforts in the provision, use, development and management of water resources to meet the various water demands: household, agriculture, municipalities, industries, electricity, tourism and environment.
3. Control of potential water-destructive capacity: This policy is aimed at reducing and coping with the potential impacts of flood, drought, erosion and abrasion on the area of agricultural and industrial production, human settlement and other infrastructures. The efforts include preventive measures to protect production and settlement areas, and public infrastructures from floods, to recover the environmental conditions, and to improve community alertness on the issues of floods and other potential damages caused by water.
4. Empowerment and improvement of community, private and government participation: This policy includes increasing the cooperation and participation of all stakeholders, including government, private sector and community to achieve a productive, effective, efficient and equitable water resources management system, without sacrificing public interests, and to prepare effective and efficient government institutions in association with decentralization, democratization, synergy privatization, and conflict resolution in water resources management.
5. Increasing transparency and availability of data and information on water resources management: This policy intends to push democratization in water resource management. Transparency in the processes of water resource management should be improved to provide more access to all stakeholders to participate in the implementation of water resources development programmes.

The laws and regulations concerning water resources and their management are as follows:

• Indonesian Law Number 7, year 2004: water resources laws
• Government Regulation Number 77, year 2001: irrigation
• Government Regulation Number 82, year 2001: water quality management and water pollution control
• Government Regulation on water resource management
• Government Regulation on management of water resources in river system
• Government Regulation on financing water resource development
• Government Regulation on rivers
• Government Regulation on groundwater
• Government Regulation on drinking water
• Government Regulation on Perum Jasa Tirta I
• Government Regulation on Perum Jasa Tirta II
• Presidential Instruction Number 3, year 1999: policy reformation on irrigation management
• Presidential Decree Number 9, year 1999: coordination team on river water use and development policies
• Presidential Decree Number 123, year 2001 (renewed by President Decree Number 83, year 2002): coordination team on water resources management
• Decision of the Coordinator Ministry on Economy, Finance, and Industry
• Decision of the Coordinator Ministry on Economy
• Decision of the Ministry of Settlements and Regional Infrastructures (Dept of Public Works)
• Decision of the Ministry of Internal Affairs
• Decision of the Ministry of Environment
• Provincial Regulations on formation of the agencies for water resources development (8 provinces)
• Provincial Regulations on water pollution control (4 provinces)
• Governor Decisions on development of the Coordination Teams for Provincial Water Resources Management (8 provinces)
• District and Municipality Regulation concerning water resources for domestic, agricultural and industrial use.

Environment and health

The strategic geographical location, accompanied by high rainfall, mountainous geography, as well as large forest resources, have led Indonesia to be rich in water resources. However, environmental changes are influencing the water cycle, which causes uneven distribution of water supply. The imbalanced water supply is a serious problem, since it might lead to a number of natural disasters. Flooding occurs during the rainy season, while drought is frequent in the dry season. Massive deforestation and environmental degradation have resulted out of these extreme conditions. The massive deforestation in the upper parts of the watershed has caused the rainfall to run off more freely and concentrating more rapidly into the waterways, thus causing flash flood. Due to the high level of municipal and industrial waste, a lot of rivers are significantly or seriously polluted. It has not been possible to quantify the costs of pollution to the economy, but major costs have been identified in the sickness and the resulting loss of work; pollution is so severe in major cities, such as Jakarta and Surabaya, that industries have been forced to close during dry years because of raw water shortages. Costs have also been accounted by calculating the losses in fisheries and aquaculture, and by the damages suffered by mangroves and fragile coastal areas.

Water pollution poses an immediate threat to human welfare and industrial growth. This problem is exacerbated by water shortage in the dry season, which prevents waste from being flushed away from the inhabited centers. The most excessive pollutant in Indonesian rivers is fecal coliform from human waste. This element exceeds the recommended standards in key cities by a thousand-fold or more. Waterborne diseases such as cholera, dysentery, gastroenteritis, typhoid, paratyphoid, hepatitis A, and parasitic intestinal infection, are transmitted through the ingestion of water contaminated with human feces. The transmission of these diseases is frequently related to lack of availability of safe water. Improvement of water and sanitation can be expected to reduce diarrheal mortality and morbidity.

The number of people with AIDS and HIV infection is reported to increase over time. In 2004, the number of people with infected AIDS was 2 682 persons, and 700 persons of them were reported death. This showed that the AIDS rate was about 1.33 cases per 100 000 people. In 2005, people with HIV/AIDS were 5 560 persons.

Prospects for agricultural water management

Issues of water resources management will be increasingly important in the years ahead, especially in Java, which covers only 7 percent of the total area of the country, but has 59 percent of the population, 70 percent of the irrigated agriculture, and 75 percent of the industry. Issues of water quantity include emerging conflicts between competing uses (agricultural, industrial and municipal), and between surface water and groundwater in rapidly growing urban areas. While Java is endowed with rainfall, it is highly seasonal. Dry season flows in the main rivers are only 20 percent of the annual flows. River basins on Java are relatively steep and short, and most of the wet season water runs unused into the sea. Reservoirs hold less than five percent of the total river flows. During the wet season, river flows bring high rates of sedimentation due to excessive erosion in the upstream part of the basin. This causes very fast sedimentation rates in reservoirs and lakes, making the lifetime of reservoirs shorter than planned, as well as reducing storage capacities. Most of the reservoirs capacities of major river basins in Java (Bengawan Solo, Brantas, Citarum, Serayu-Bogowonto) were planned to meet the water demand for various uses up to 2010. While additional sites have been identified for future dams, implementation will be constrained by high population densities and the social and economic costs of resettlement.

Though industrial and municipal water use is still relatively low, it will grow over time. Meeting this demand will require a shift of water in dry season from agriculture to municipal and industrial use. Minimizing the social and economic costs for farmers and potential disruption to agricultural output will require that water resources will be managed according to the integrated river basin principle. The challenge of meeting the water demand during the dry season is becoming even more complex if the pollution from growing urban and industrial waste is taken into consideration.

Based on the above conditions, an integrated action is needed in order to reverse the present trends of over-consumption, pollution, and increasing threat of drought and floods. To support water resources development and management, the government has proposed an Integrated Water Resources Management Policy framework to support and guide the development and conservation efforts. The policy is addressing water quantity and quality for both surface water and groundwater in the context of river basins, including the upper parts of the basins and estuarine areas. A specific component of the policy is dealing with environmentally and socially sensitive swampland development issues.

The future of irrigation should be considered as an integral framework in order to increase human welfare, to provide social justice, and to maintain the ecosystem sustainability. Along with overcoming water and land resources problems, some national action should be taken, including: improving agricultural infrastructure, increasing the quality of intensification, improving the institutions, conducting reforestation and re-greening programmes.

Main sources of information

Bakorsurtanal. 2001. Neraca Sumberdaya Air Spasial Nasional (National Spatial Water Balance).

Bappenas. 2004. Sumberdaya Alam dan Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia: Antara Krisis dan Peluang (Natural resources and environments of Indonesia: between crisis and poverty). Bappenas, Jakarta.

Department of Public Works. 2006. Buku Induk Kestatistikan Pekerjaan Umum Tahun 2006. Sekretarian Jenderal Pusdata, Departemen Pekerjaan Umum, Jakarta.

FAO. 1999. Irrigation in Asia in figures. FAO Water Report 18. FAO, Rome

FAO. 2003. Review of world water resources by country. FAO Water Report 23. FAO, Rome.

Irianto, Gatot. 2007. Perubahan Iklim Terhadap Ketersediaan Air (Bahan Presentasi). Direktorat Jenderal Pengelolaan Lahan Dan Air, Departemen Pertanian RI, Jakarta.

Ministry of Public Works. 2006. Rekapitulasi Daerah Irigasi Tahun 2005. http://www.pu.go.id/publik/ind/produk/info_statistik/_index.asp, accessed August 19, 2009.

Pasandaran, Effendi. 2006. Politik Ekonomi Sumberdaya Air (Political economy of water resources). Chapter 1 in: Effendi Pasandaran, Bambang Sayaka, and Tri Pranadji (editors), 2006, Pengelolaan Lahan dan Air di Indonesia (Land and water management in Indonesia). Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pertanian, Departmen Pertanian, Jakarta.

Statistics Indonesia. 2005. Agricultural survey: land area by utilization in Indonesia 2005. Statistics Indonesia, Jakarta.

Statistics Indonesia. 2006. Environmental statistics of Indonesia 2005. Statistics Indonesia, Jakarta.

Statistics Indonesia. 2007. Statistical year book of Indonesia 2007. Statistics Indonesia, Jakarta.

Suprapto, Ato. 2001. Land and water resources development in Indonesia in FAO (2002). Investment in Land and Water, Proceedings of the Regional Consultation, Bangkok, Thailand, 3-5 October 2001.

Syaukat, Yusman. 2000. Economics of integrated surface and ground water use management in the Jakarta region, Indonesia. PhD Dissertation, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada.

Witoelar, Erna. Undated. Water in the 21st Century – Looming the crisis: integrated water management in Indonesia. Ministry of Settlements and Regional Infrastructure, Jakarta.

World Bank. 1994. Indonesia: environment and development – A World Bank country study. World Bank, Washington, D.C.