Redesigning for risk: tracking and buffering environmental variability in Africa's rangelands
Mixed farming systems in sub-Saharan Africa
Livestock feeds and mixed farming systems in West Asia and North Africa
Mixed farming systems in Latin America and the Caribbean
Mixed farming and intensification of animal production systems in Asia
Discussion SummaryThe role of research was the main focus of discussion. There was general agreement on the need for policy research and that institutions such as ILRI have a comparative advantage in undertaking surveys among systems. The concepts of "tracking " and "buffering " raised comment and required clarification. Land reform and tenure were discussed with a consensus that widespread agrarian reform for communal areas is neither desirable nor feasible but that there is a need explore other forms of tenure that allow for greater control of "key " resources such as dry season grazing.
Tracking and buffering
The comparative advantage of institutions such as ILRI in doing the types of activities identified in the paper needs to be clearly identified, with which partners they should do it and the process mechanisms that need to be established (Peters). This relates in part to earlier discussion on research funding. It also seems it is now time to make intelligent interventions in agropastoral systems rather than just doing research. One possibility would be to have a scientific component in all projects while viewing the actual implementation as an experiment and the overall project as a trial. The limit for speculation about what is likely to happen has probably been reached and it is now time now for action (Behnke).
Tracking must be related to mobility in space and over time and to the question of security. The importance of scale and distance in tracking needs to be known. The main problems seen by pastoralists are: the adverse teens of trade in which livestock prices are too low and goods and services are too high, and inaccessible range due to security problems and disputes. Many current problems are politically based and poor security will limit the ability to do tracking (de Leeuw). Tracking would be both temporal and spatial. Monitoring of markets would be one indicator but many of these are imperfect and affected by government (which is usually counterproductive) and often, inadvertently, by donor policies. Security can be a serious problem and is often politically based: if there were greater "economic attachment" to a particular country security might be less of a problem (Behnke).
Participation and ownership
Producer "ownership" of a project in which they are involved in identifying the problem as well as the solutions helps in management of risk. The views that are presented need to be reconciled with farmers' interests (Nana-Sinkam). There is probably only a small overlap between the perceived needs (wants) of pastoralists and what any programme of tracking and buffering could or should provide: only those items that are appropriate should actually be provided (Behnke).
The role of pastoral organizations needs to defined (de Haan). The focus on these has mainly been in West Africa in recent years: reviews seem to indicate that they have been expensive to establish and have not always survived when external funding stops. Traditional associations are models that should be considered (as they have been in West Africa) (Behnke).
The adverse effects that the research driven ranching model has had on pastoral development have been described. Should pastoralists be concerned if ILRI ignores the problems identified or should they be strong advocates of the ILRI programme in this area (Young). Pastoralists would not distinguish ILRI participation from that of government and would give it a sceptical reception (Behnke).
ILRI does not have a mandate to intervene in ranching model systems but it does have a comparative advantage in working across different pastoral systems, in looking across time and in taking a global view and drawing conclusions from those comparisons and the rapid changes that are taking place (Fitzhugh). There is no disagreement here and, in addition, the benefits may go beyond the pastoral sector so that the approach could be used to examine related systems (Behnke).
Sustainability and environmental impact
Sustainability includes accounting for environmental deterioration and the consequences of economic activity. Care needs to be taken of the cost in environmental impact of these economic activities end rates of return or profitability figures may not reflect reality (Nana-Sinkam). Environmental impact must be measured by biologists but if economic parameters of impact assessment are needed, given that trend data masks the intrinsic instability common to these systems, then modelling (with all its failings) is probably the best available tool (Behnke).
Land reform and tenure
Land reform may be important in development (de Haan). The future is not in widespread agrarian reform, which usually implies individual ownership, but in a complex mix of individual and communal tenure. It is important that pastoralists are allowed to control key resources such as dry season grazing areas and water. Control varies from very strict individual ownership to open access and largely depends on the importance or value of the resources in question. Total "communal resource management" is not realistic, however, where very valuable resources are involved and some regulation may be needed here (Behnke).
ILRI has a role in research on tenure, especially comanagement (Young).
Discussion summaryDiscussion focused on the likelihood and impact of intensification including competition for land and labour New technologies were considered important in the intensification process although the poor past performance of "technology transfer" and the lack of research relevance were noted. There was no consensus that integration and intensification is the only way forward and it was pointed out that many arable farmers do not own animals and those who do may not necessarily have the incentive to integrate or commercialize. The need for characterizing integrated farming systems by various economic, environmental and social indicators was discussed.
Competition for land and labour
Further comment is needed on competition for labour and land in the intensification process. Management and labour skills should be considered when formulating and testing or developing mixed farming systems. Scientists should focus more on how a farmer can move between systems if the alternatives are more appropriate to their needs (Ostergaard). Land and labour competition will vary according to the level of intensification (Saleem).
Mixed crop-livestock systems will continue to intensify and result in higher output and income but this can only happen in an environment characterized by rapid urbanization which raises the opportunity cost of keeping cattle for traction or for purposes other than meat and milk. Rises in beef prices can adversely affect mixed crop-livestock systems this being the same effect as when crop prices are low. The role of policy related to mixed systems needs to be seriously considered (Ehui).
Guiding the dynamic development of mixed systems will require farm analysis and comparisons between enterprises in terms of efficiency and economic returns. ILRI may want to look at the importance of these methods which should have greater importance in NARS (and other partners) in order to improve research and extension activities, farmer participation and overall linkages within the system (Peters).
Systems definitions
A "mixed farming system" needs to be defined: based on the proportion of subsistence and/or income from livestock or on the level of interaction including manure, traction, fuel and other exchanges. In crop-livestock communities there are many poor farmers (in terms of livestock) and by focusing on livestock ILRI may be excluding the poor and favouring the rich (de Leeuw). A definition of "mixed-farming" may not be required but it is an integration of distinct activities that can range from predominately crop to predominately livestock orientated. A basket of interventions (technologies) is required to cover varying situations and there is no one technology appropriate to "mixed farming" (Ehui).
Attempts should be made to characterize systems by various indicators such as ecological (balance of N. P. K and flora), economic (household income and stability over time), and social (education of children, family life and quality of life) (Ostergaard).
Participation, technology transfer and research relevance
ILCA had a long history of research on single animal draught work. Uptake has been poor and the relevance of the technique to the target population needs to considered (Wilson). The correct issues may not have been tackled in the past but changing economic circumstances may now lead to a better uptake: intensification, the need to reduce grazing pressure and sustainability issues are now better understood by farmers (Shapiro).
Separation of livestock and crops, especially in the supply of services such as extension has been indicated. Research progress is also limited by the narrow (usually cultural or disciplinary based) views taken by scientists, an example being plant breeders failing to take account of by-products (Toutain). ILRI has always adopted a multidisciplinary approach to livestock research (Saleem).
Disease control in intensified systems demands better management and is dependent on farmer education. Responsibility for this probably resides with agencies other than ILRI. Epidemiological studies might reveal specific constraints such as extended calving intervals that could be overcome with simple technology such as heat detection tests (Ole Nielson).
Specific problems related to intensification include:
· sociological ones where cropping and livestock are done by groups of people with different social and ethnic backgrounds who are unwilling to integrate;· lack of a maximum profit motive leading to lack of incentive to intensify; and
· low population density in many rural areas means land is still available leaving farmers the option to move to new areas when soil fertility declines rather than developing integrated systems (Baker).
The potential of new technology should not be underestimated. There is nothing sacrosanct about mixed farming systems as they are dynamic and subject to change. Increasing population will lead to demand driven intensification and the need to adopt improved technologies. The issues are to identify opportunities, assign priorities and intervene to ensure a successful transition. The erroneous view that production has not increased in sub-Saharan Africa over the last 20 years should be discarded. Production has increased by about two per cent per year overall even though per caput production has declined. Not all of the increase in production has been due to yield increases per unit area and much has been due to area expansion. There have, however, been major technological successes with food crops such as maize, as well as cereals in cotton rotations. Mixed farming as a model of development, as presented in this paper, is helpful but does not go far enough. Mixed farming is not an end in itself. If it is treated as such it will only lead to further development failures. A model is needed that will help to identify alternative strategies to bring about agricultural development. The mixed farming model is basically the conservation model and one that makes improved integration of crops and livestock the goal. This conservation model has been able to achieve only low productivity increases of about one per cent per year but about four per cent is needed to achieve increased agricultural output in the face of three per cent population growth. The required model is the intensification model of Boserup and others based on the premise that increased population pressure leads to decreased land availability and quality and decreased opportunity cost of labour but increased market opportunities. These factors motivate farmers to intensify via land saving cash inputs. Mixed farming is thus inadequate as a development model for identifying potential change. The intensification model includes the possibility for improved crop-livestock integration but also intensified mixed systems as well as intensified or low input specialized systems (such as agropastoralism) and is what must be used as the conceptual model for development (Shapiro).
Discussion SummaryThere was considerable discussion on the sustainability of many of existing practices, particularly the use of subsidized feed grain and its consequences. The future for many countries in the area is bleak especially those lacking a potential manufacturing base or mineral wealth. Self sufficiency in grain or animal products is unlikely although rotations incorporating legumes, on the little evidence available, might increase overall production and have the additional effect of increasing the amount animal feed. Considerable interest was expressed in the survey methodology used by ICARDA and its potential for use by NARS.
Participation, uptake and research relevance
Even where there are no lentils in the rotation the use of annual Medicago spp. has been limited. It would be useful to know why the introduction of grain and/or forage legumes in crop rotations has not had greater uptake. One reason is that the harvesting of grain legumes is labour intensive and labour in the region has a high opportunity cost. The future for grain legumes is, however, brighter than for forage legumes as the increasing population will not be able to afford to maintain the already low consumption levels of high value animal products and pulses become increasingly more important in human diets. The future of livestock will depend to a great extent on pricing and import policies. If, however, self sufficiency remains a regional objective, especially for wheat, then livestock production may benefit as a change from continuous wheat monoculture to rotations that include grain and forage legumes will provide valuable additional animal feed.
The effects on water use efficiency and ground water reserves are important. Technology that is likely to increase leaf area indices and evapotranspiration may be undesirable (Saleem). Farmers basically only care about the value of production and do not take a long term view on the value of water (Nordblom).
Two clusters of countries with respect to population growth and economic situation were presented. It would be interesting to know how this clustering is used in research programming (Peters). The stereotype of an oil rich Arab state is not representative of the region which comprises typically poor countries with agricultural economies: the latter group is the focus of ICARDA's programmes (Nordblom).
ICARDA's capacity for microeconomic systems analysis has been demonstrated. Presumably these results are used in research programming and in improving the capacity of its partners in improving information systems, farm analysis and the setting of research and extension priorities (Peters). Most of the rotational trials have been undertaken by associated national programmes. The methodology is being used by NARS but is still at an early stage (Nordblom).
Policy
Subsidized concentrate (grain) feeding must be having some effects on the rangelands in the region (de Haan). The effect is generally negative since this kind of supplementation allows animal numbers far in excess of range carrying capacity to be maintained. Range grazing may represent only a relatively small proportion of the diet but the large increase in animal numbers is causing the damage (Nordblom). Livestock pressure on the rangelands is compounded by the large mother flocks needed to supply male stock to the feedlots (T. Lahlou-Kassi).
The population challenge is clearly critical to any assessment of the type of research to be carried out. A description of the key elements in any scenario to feed the expected 2020 populations would be very useful (Young). Wheat prices are expected to remain low and will be the staple diet of the increasing population although neither grain nor animal product self sufficiency is likely. The prospects for those countries that do not develop a manufacturing base or have mineral wealth remains bleak. Demand will not be related to either "want" or "need" but to disposable income, that is, to effective demand (Nordblom).
Discussion SummaryDiscussion centred on what many participants obviously considered controversial matters introduced by the speaker. There was concern in particular about remarks that extension workers were not needed as farmers acted as their own extension agents and about the need to avoid continuing with farm surveys over long periods of time without them achieving any tangible results. The amount of information available and its accessibility and transfer were also major points of discussion.
Extension and surveys
It does not seem possible to work with farmers without extension agents (Oram).
The statement about "no more surveys" is alarming. On-farm epidemiological surveys are useful in identifying determinants of health and productivity. This method can identify practices that farmers use to improve performance as well as identifying the most important constraints needing research. Measuring performance improves performance (Ole Nielsen).
The statement that no further surveys are needed is very surprising. It is not possible to disseminate and then monitor the effects of dissemination of new techniques without using surveys (Lahlou-Kassi).
Information systems and delivery
There should be concern about information overload. It is now becoming difficult to find the germs among the large volumes of information that add little to knowledge. Some hints for solving this are needed. More effort needs to be given to the way communication is done to avoid too much repetition (Young). There is inadequate information in most areas and if there is too much elsewhere it would be interesting to know about it (Peters).
Information systems are very important but there is much dissent about what systems are needed. Information systems must be separated from data bases. Resources to do the literature reviews, screening and translation indicated in the paper are probably not available (Oram).
One of the main constraints to improving productivity in failure to apply existing knowledge but this is a problem that must be tackled (Irvin).
The responsibility of the education system should be taken very seriously and the argument could be expanded. International agricultural research systems have to think about how to overcome the linkage problem and the overall efficiency of research and extension. In comparison to industrial research systems public research has too many networks without a problem orientation and delivery mechanism involving all partners of the research, extension and education systems. IARCs need to be concerned with this since final success will depend on the efficiency of research, extension and education generation and delivery (Peters).
Participation
There is much talk of farmer participation. This is important but in reality, when two sets of farmers are contacted from the same village, they come up with totally dissimilar problems. There is a need to find some commonalities about topics for international research (Saleem).
Markets are talked about in very abstract terms. There is a need to specify whether these are external or internal and, if the former, it would be interesting to know how the Third World can compete with the rest of the world and its formidable propaganda machinery, news media, quality impositions, ridiculous standards [sic!] and money power. Perhaps, for example, preferential treatment or territorial market-producer relationships should be encouraged for the developing countries (Saleem).
Discussion SummaryThe complexity of Asian systems was a major focus of discussion. Non-ruminants are very important in Asia and may need more research. It was agreed that conventional and non-conventional systems are evolving rapidly in response to population growth and urbanization. It would be useful to have much more information on the extent of the positive and negative (including the generation of waste) changes taking place.
Urbanization and economic growth
There is rapid economic growth. Urban incomes and demand for food and animal products are high and rising in many Southeast Asian countries. It would be interesting to know why the farming community is not benefiting from investment of off-farm income in farming, especially through family connections in both sectors (de Leeuw).
Some consequences of urbanization are increases in "waste" production including water effluent and sewage, human food waste and waste from agricultural and food processing. Instead of considering these as wastes they could be regarded as potential resources for improving livestock/crop production systems in periurban areas. In this respect they are worthy of further research (Irvin). Wastes can, however be dangerous, as are water in China and manure and tannery effluent in India (de Haan).
Development and change in farming systems
Mixed crop-livestock farming with ruminants and non-ruminants has been identified as very important in Asia. This perhaps suggests that the emphasis on ruminants should be changed and that when non-ruminants are components of a production system of interest they should of necessity be studied as part of the system (Osuji).
More needs to be known about the structure of land size and ownership and, especially for tree crops, how much is owned by individual farms and how much by commercial companies (Oram).
It seems that in countries with rapid economic growth and growing demand for animal products there is a trend towards specialization. More should be known about intensive pig and poultry production in Southeast Asia and changes in size of production units. Integrated farming systems that have an aquaculture component should be covered by the ICLARM aquaculture farming system network in Southeast Asia (Peters).
Mixed and intensified systems have been discussed but not the so called landless systems that are common and increasing in Asia as source of animal food. We need to know the reasons for this development and about interactions with other systems (Maki-Hokkonen).
