The impact of the introduction of exotic cattle in east and southern Africa

W. N. M. Mwenya

Department of Animal Science, University of Zambia, Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia.

Introduction
Cattle production sectors
Comparative production performance of exotic cattle
On-farm performance
Impact of exotic cattle
References

Introduction

Cattle in East and southern African countries play many roles; they contribute to subsistence, nutrition, income generation, assets, security, social and cultural functions (Jahnke, 1982). However, their main products remain meat, milk, hides, manure and traction power. Every government in this region would like to see production of these commodities increased. However, increases in productivity depend on effective policies in animal health, nutrition, breeding, management and marketing.

Breed policy plays an essential role in cattle production as it defines the type of cattle to be kept and, hence, sets the required levels of animal health, nutrition and management. Most countries in the region have a breeding policy of one kind or another. These vary in their details but tend to centre on the use of indigenous breeds for beef production and use of the crossbreds between indigenous breeds and exotic dairy breeds for milk production (Mwenya, 1990).

Exotic cattle were first introduced into this region by colonial farmers. Thus, the origin of exotic cattle is generally traced back to Europe. The most common exotic dairy breeds in the region are Friesian, Holstein, Ayrshire, Jersey, Guernsey and Sahiwal. However, the Friesian breed predominates. The common exotic beef breeds are Hereford, Brahman, Sussex, Charolais, South Devon, Africander and Simmental (dual purpose).

The justification for the introduction of exotic cattle by colonial farmers was first and foremost to supply beef and milk products to Europeans working in urban areas. Therefore these animals were placed on farms closest to urban areas for ease of access to the markets. It was not until in the 1960s, after independence, that indigenous Africans began to have access to exotic cattle and that policy makers and livestock administrators gradually realised the advantage of using these animals to increase meat and milk production.

The objective of this paper is to assess from a livestock breeders vantage the impact of the introduction of exotic cattle in East and southern Africa. This will be analysed by examining their production performance relative to indigenous cattle and their rate of spread in various farming sectors.

Cattle production sectors

In general, cattle production in this region can be divided into three sectors: the large-scale commercial sector, in which cattle are kept purely to generate income; the small-scale commercial sector, in which income and nutrition are the main reasons for keeping cattle; and the traditional sector, in which income is very much secondary to meeting nutritional needs, storing of wealth, providing security and social and cultural functions. Most cattle are in the traditional sector and are indigenous types. There are fewer exotic cattle and crosses between indigenous and exotic cattle, and most of these are found in the small-scale and large-scale commercial sectors.

There are five agro-ecological zones in the region: arid, semi-arid, subhumid, humid and highland. Indigenous cattle are generally concentrated in the arid and semi-arid zones. Most exotic cattle are located in semi-arid and highland zones, the areas which were first selected by colonial farmers because of their favourable climate.

Comparative production performance of exotic cattle

The most reliable documented work on the productivity of exotic cattle in the region is from research stations. however, most breed evaluation work has been on beef cattle, this varies between countries. For example, Botswana has tended to focus on beef cattle research while Kenya has taken a lead in dairy cattle research and Tanzania has developed a dual-purpose breed.

Beef cattle

The traits of prime importance in research on beef cattle are reproduction, growth and viability. In Botswana, it was shown that the calving percentage of exotic cattle compared very well with that of indigenous cattle (APRU, 1980); however, the mortality rate was much higher in exotic than in indigenous cattle (Table 1). Although the 18-month weight of exotic breeds was higher than that of indigenous cattle, the weight of 18-month-old calf per cow per year (which is a good measure of breed productivity as it combines the three important features of reproductive performance, growth rate and mortality, all of which are highly heritable) was slightly lower in exotic cattle, particularly the Brahman breed. This was largely the result of the high mortality rate in exotic cattle.

Table 1. Productivity of purebred cattle in Animal Production Research Unit ranches. Botswana.

Traits and period	Breeds
	Tuli	Tswana	Bonsmara	Brahman
Calving (%)	87	80	83	72
Mortality(%)	7.2	9.4	17.5	18.6
18-month weight (kg)	287.2	293.5	315.4	308.6
Weight of 18-month calf/cow per year (kg)	230.8	212.7	215.7	181.4

In some cases, exotic beef breeds have proved to be more productive than the indigenous cattle. For example, in Zimbabwe the Brahman was more productive in terms of weight of weaner per cow per year than the indigenous Mashona and Nkone breeds but was about equal to the Tuli (Table 2) (Tawonezvi et al, 1988a; 1988b).

Table 2. Production performance of Mashona, Nkone, Tuli and Brahman cattle in Zimbabwe.

Breed	Calving (%)	Calf viability (%)	Weaning weight (kg)
Mashona	76.0	89.1	171.9
Nkone	63.1	88.3	186.8
Tuli	69.6	91.2	184.4
Brahman	70.0	82.5	206.8

Source: Tawonezvi et at (1988a; 1988b)

However, in general, crossbreds between exotic beef cattle and indigenous cattle are more productive than the indigenous cattle as viewed from simple production statistics. In Malawi (Malawi Department of Agriculture, 1972) it was shown that crosses between the Malawi Zebu and exotic beef cattle were superior to unselected and selected Malawi Zebu in terms of birth weight (37.3, 21.4 and 22.3 kg, respectively), weaning weight (150, 120.0 and 122.3 kg, respectively) and daily weight gain (1.22, 0.86 and 0.98 kg per day, respectively). In Tanzania, the results of the work at Mpwapwa (Mpiri et al, 1986; LPRI, 1976; LPRI, 1977) indicate that the crosses had higher birth, weaning and 18-month weights than the Tanzania Shorthorn and Boran. In Botswana, all crosses had higher birth, weaning and 18-month weights than the pure Tswana, except for the Tuli and Tswana cross; this might indicate a lack of significant genetic difference between the Tuli and Tswana (Table 3).

Table 3. Productivity of Tswana crossbred cattle in Animal Production Research Unit ranches, Botswana, 1970-80.

Trait	Breed of sire
	Tuli	Brahman	Bonsmara	Simmental
Calving (%)	81	82	87	85
Mortality (%)	10.1	5.3	6.6	8.9
Weight of weaner/cow per year (kg)	127.8	151.7	149.2	163.9
Weight of 18 month calf/cow per year (kg)	215.5	241.8	227.7	256.9

Source: APRU (1980).

Dairy cattle

In dairy cattle, age at first calving, calving interval, milk yield per lactation, lactation length and fat percentage are the most important traits. Work in Malawi has shown that both pure Friesians and crossbreds between Friesian and Malawi Zebu are superior in terms of lactation milk yield and lactation length (Table 4). Work in Tanzania has also demonstrated the superiority of exotic purebred dairy cattle, even over the synthetic Mpwapwa breed (Table 5).

Table 4. Production performance of purebred Friesian and Malawi Zebu and Friesian x Malawi Zebu crossbred cattle in Malawi.

Breed	Lactation milk yield (kg)	Lactation length (days)	Butter fat (%)
Malawi Zebu	880.0	260.8	5.8
Friesian	4304.4	325.5	3.8
Friesian x Malawi Zebu	1803.5	289.3	4.0

Source: Nec (1970).

Table 5. Production performance of Mpwapwa, Mpwapwa backcross and Friesian cattle in Tanzania.

Breed	Lactation yield (kg)	Lactation length (days)	Dally yield (kg)
Mpwapwa	1591.8	267.4	5.7
Mpwapwa x Bos taurus (F1)	2663.1	298.6	8.9
F1 x Mpwapwa	2091.1	287.9	7.2
USA Friesian	3922.5	341.5	11.5
New Zealand Friesian	2935.1	305.0	9.6

Source: Mpwapwa Research Station Annual Reports, 1976-86 and Lauridsen (1979).

Based on these observations, the potential impact of exotic cattle on beef production is not great. However, the benefits of upgrading indigenous breeds with exotic dairy cattle are very apparent.

On-farm performance

It was difficult to compare on-farm breed production performance because of lack of records, especially in the small-scale commercial and traditional sectors, and because some breeds were absent or present only in small numbers. For example, exotic breeds are absent in the traditional sector, indigenous breeds are generally not kept in the large-scale commercial sector, while most animals in the small-scale commercial sector are crossbreds.

Dairy cattle

The average lactation milk yield in exotic dairy cattle varies from country to country. Average lactation milk yields of Friesians are reported as 3480 kg in Zambia (Mwenya, 1992) and 3400 kg in Malawi (Agyemang and Nkhonjera, 1986). Lactation milk yields in crossbreds ranged from 900 to 1300 kg in Kenya (Trail and Gregory, 1981; MLD, 1990) and averaged 1300 kg in Zambia (Mubita, 1992) and 1000 kg in Malawi (Agyemang and Nkhonjera, 1986). Annual milk yields for crossbreds of 567 kg were reported in Tanzania (Ministry of Agriculture, 1972). The differences recorded were probably due to variations in genotype constitution and environmental conditions including management.

Research has shown that indigenous cattle in all the countries of the region produced much less milk than crossbred and exotic dairy cattle. For example, milk production from indigenous cattle was reported to range from 150 to 250 kg a year in Kenya (MLD, 1986; MLD, 1990), to average 200 kg a year in Tanzania (Ministry of Agriculture, 1972) and to average 300 kg a lactation in Ethiopia (Gryseels and Anderson, 1983). Research has also shown that exotic breeds respond better to improvements in the environment than do indigenous cattle (Trail and Gregory, 1981).

These results thus indicate that it is possible for exotic dairy cattle to achieve their potential for milk production given an upgraded environment in the three production sectors.

Beef cattle

There seems to be no reported work relating to on-farm evaluation of beef breeds in the region. What information has been collated is on the performances of a given breed across production systems. Table 6 gives a summary comparing the performance of cattle between the traditional sector and the ranch network in Botswana. It is clear from the estimates given in Table 6 that productivity is very low in the traditional sector because of low calving percentage and low weaning weight.

Table 6. Performance of beef cattle under traditional and ranch network management systems in Botswana.

Trait	Type of management
	Traditional	Ranch network
Calving (%)	40.0	71.0
Pre-weaning mortality (%)	6.0	9.0
Weaning weight (kg)	128.0	172.0
Weight of weaner/cow per year (kg)	48.0	112.0

Source: APRU (1973)

Data from Malawi indicate that, in the Malawi Zebu, there is not much difference in age at first calving between animals in the traditional sector (3.3 years; de Koning, 1977) and those on research stations (3.2 years; Kasowanjete, 1977). The calving percentage also did not vary much between production systems (63.6 and 66.7%, respectively) (Koning, 1977; Department of Agriculture, 1972). However, there was a notable difference in the calving interval between animals in the traditional sector and those on the research station (2.4 and 1.2 years, respectively).

In Tanzania age at first calving was estimated at four years, calving interval at 1.5 years and calf mortality at 27% in indigenous cattle (Mpiri, 1990). Similarly, in Ethiopia cows did not calve until approximately four years of age (Gryseels and Anderson, 1983). Although there are variations between countries, in general the productivity of indigenous cattle in the traditional sector is lower than that of exotic beef cattle and their crosses in the commercial sector.

Impact of exotic cattle

Based on results from research stations, and a few from farms, exotic cattle can perform better than indigenous cattle given an improved environment. Policy makers and livestock administrators have been aware of these advantages for a very long time. However, the question to be asked is what impact have exotic cattle made since their introduction by colonial farmers and by livestock policy makers?

Beef cattle

Since the introduction of exotic beef cattle in the region they have in practical terms not spread from the large-scale commercial sector to other sectors in most countries, except in Botswana. In Botswana farmers in both the commercial and the traditional sector are implementing the recommendation to crossbred Tswana cows to Brahman bulls for use under general conditions and to Simmental bulls (a dual-purpose breed) for use under conditions of improved management (as defined by some degree of fencing for control of breeding herds, attention to disease and mineral supplements and adequate water supply at a reasonable distance). The wide spread use of exotic breeds in Botswana has been made possible by the use of a bull subsidy scheme and, most importantly, by the operation of an artificial insemination scheme for beef in the traditional sector.

In terms of contribution to meat production, it seems that, in general, exotic beef cattle and their crosses have not contributed much more than the indigenous cattle. For example, Zambia has 2.2 million head of cattle in traditional sector, almost all of which are indigenous breeds, and 0.48 million head of cattle are in commercial sector, out of which 0.06 million head are dairy animals. The off-take rates are estimated at 6 and 15% for traditional and commercial sector, respectively (Kaluba, 1992). Thus, although the off-take rate is very low in indigenous cattle, they contribute much more than exotic cattle and their crosses because of their larger number. The picture is similar for other countries in the region (except Botswana), because of the following factors: generally in this region indigenous cattle constitute 70 to 90% of the total cattle population and the off-take rate of indigenous cattle ranges between 3 and 10% while the off-take rate of exotic cattle and their crosses ranges between 15 and 20%.

Taking into consideration the limited spread of exotic cattle and their crosses and their contribution to meat production in most countries in the region, a conclusion could be drawn that exotic beef cattle have had negligible impact on beef production in the region.

Dairy cattle

In general, purebred dairy cattle have spread to an appreciable extent from the large-scale commercial sector to the small-scale sector, with the crossbred even dominating the sector. The concentration of crossbred dairy is most pronounced in Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia.

In Kenya the grade cattle population grew at an average rate of 8.7% per year between 1980 and 1989 (MLD, 1990), as a consequence of the upgrading of the zebu cattle. In Tanzania there was a similar rise in the dairy cattle population of 6.5% per year from 1984 to 1990 as a result of upgrading of zebu cattle (MALD, 1988). In most countries there is an urgent need to increase the number of crossbred dairy animals but progress has been constrained by a limited supply of crossbred heifers, which results in animals being too expensive for most farmers, who generally have no access to credit facilities. There is no doubt that milk consumed in the traditional sector comes from indigenous cattle. However, unlike beef, indigenous cattle do not contribute much to the milk sold in the formal market place.

For example, in Zambia all milk marketed in formal markets is derived from exotic cattle and their crosses, while in Kenya 25% of marketed milk comes from zebu cattle (MLD, 1990). Of the milk from grade cattle marketed in Kenya, 85% is produced by the small-scale sector and 15% is produced by the large-scale commercial sector. One feature which is common in almost all the countries in the region is that the number of large-scale commercial dairy farms is decreasing. This is due to a number of reasons, one of which is poor milk price B. This means that more and more of the milk sold will be produced by the small-scale sector and hence the need for crossbred dairy cattle will continue to rise.

Based on the extensive spread of exotic dairy cattle and their crosses from the large-scale commercial sector to the small-scale commercial sector, and the enormous contribution of these animals to marketed milk, a deduction could be drawn that exotic cattle have made an impact and that there exists still further potential to exploit these animals. This contribution has been possible because the improvement brought about by exotic cattle can be easily and quickly grasped by most farmers and because milk is not considered as a by-product in either the traditional sector or the small-scale sector.

Productivity can further be increased by putting in place workable artificial insemination services, making available crossbred heifers, producing and conserving fodder for feeding in the dry season, providing drugs and training farmers in management skills.

Based on these observations it is suggested by the author that the limited material, monetary and personnel resources available in the region can be best concentrated in the development of breeding, nutrition, health, management and marketing for dairy cattle.

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