A.B. Orodho
Western Agricultural Research Centre
P. O. Box 169, Kakamega, Kenya
Abstract
Introduction
Research technology generation
Dissemination of research results
Utilisation of forages and farm by-products by small-scale farmers
Adoption of research results on Napier grass
Technology development and adoption through on-farm trials
Conclusion
Acknowledgement
References
Agricultural research is an essential service to the livestock industry in Kenya. This is seen in the planning, execution of research programmes and in the promotion and adoption of research results and recommendations. Effective research on forages and agricultural by-products can only be measured in terms of its contribution to the solution of problems faced in the national development. Research should start with identification of farmer's problems and opportunities, develop and test appropriate technologies under farmer's conditions and conclude with solutions that would enable farmers to increase their income.
Generation, dissemination and utilisation of appropriate technology depend on interdisciplinary team approach, organised into an interacting and cohesive group involving researchers, extension workers and farmers. There is need for strong research-extension-farmer linkages in order to develop and test suitable and adaptable technology that will increase production. A lot of pasture and agricultural by-products research has been carried in Kenya for many years and substantial amount of results and technologies developed and recommended to farmers. Not all these research results and technologies have been adopted by Kenyan farmers.
This paper will attempt to look at the past and present research and extension service organisation, their linkages and the efforts made by these agricultural services in the dissemination and adoption of the vast wealth of research technologies available in Kenya. The paper will also discuss an on-farm research approach as an effective means of dissemination, utilisation and adoption of research technology.
Kenya is an agricultural country because more than 80% of the population depend on Agriculture and Livestock production for subsistence, employment, income and other basic needs. With the present annual human population growth of 3.8 - 4.0%, it has been estimated that annual production increase of 5.5 and 8.8% for meat and milk respectively are needed in order to maintain the present per capita consumption for these products at least through 1990 (Ministry of Livestock Development, 1980). All experts, whether agronomists or economists, agree that increased agricultural and livestock production remain the principal and indispensable way of responding to the challenge of the rapidly growing human population.
The main objective of Kenya's Livestock Development Policy is to intensify livestock production in order to:
a) Provide sufficient animal protein for adequate nutrition for the people and the surplus for export.
b) Alleviate poverty through creation of income generating employments at all stages of livestock production and
c) Increase production of the necessary raw materials of livestock products for the agro-industries.
With the rapidly growing human population, arable land has undergone drastic sub-divisions and fragmentation and is now very limited in highly populated areas. It is evident that increased livestock production can only be envisaged as a result of growth in return from land already under cultivation rather than bring more new land under cultivation. In fact, it has been estimated that the present land under pastures and animal production in high potential areas will decrease at a rate of 3.2% per annum due to more land being taken under subsistence crop farming.
Livestock research therefore aims at searching for more productive and high-yielding forage crops, utilising of agricultural by-products, developing appropriate technologies for efficient utilisation of these products for increased livestock production. The immediate goal of forage and livestock research is to stimulate production under given farmers' situations.
Livestock research and extension services are the two most important services necessary in technology development and dissemination of research results to farmers for increased livestock production. The extension services provide not only the technical information and skills, but also co-ordinate complementary services like input supply, credit and marketing all required to remove various production constraints to the improved utilisation of farmer's resources. Kenya government is strongly committed to improving and strengthening both the agricultural research and extension services so that better production technologies can be developed, disseminated and utilised by farmers. The Government is also committed to improving other important complementary services necessary for the adoption of the developed technologies (Republic of Kenya, 1981; 1986).
The agricultural sector of Kenya is normally divided into three sub-sectors; small-scale, large-scale, and pastoralists. Most small-scale and large-scale producers are located in the medium and high potential agricultural land occupying approximately 18% of Kenya's land surface. Pastoralists and nomads occupy the arid and semi-arid range areas which cover about 80% of land surface (Senga, 1976).
Although pasture research work in Kenya started way back in 1908, it was not until 1940 that systematic research started when Edwards recognised the need and subsequently defined the major ecological zones of Kenya and suggested that pasture research be carried out in a series of stations covering the major zones where 90% of the population lived (Edwards, 1940). The past and current trend of pasture research work has been discussed (Said, 1985). Prior to Independence, technologies were mainly developed to address problems of large settler farmers following subdivision and fragmentation of some of the large-scale farms. Consequently, research need for the small-scale intensive farmer was quite different from that under the extensive production system that was and is still being practiced to some extent i.e. large hectarages, mechanical operations, hay-pasture farming, large amounts of farm residues, fodder conservation practice, access to information and finance.
In response to the changes in the farming systems and the need to re-direct the country's livestock production to be more responsive to the needs of specific farmers, research work has been carried out in various Research Centres (Said, 1985) and various technologies and recommendations formulated for farmers. Past research achievements have been discussed and some of the publications stemming from the work have been given by Orodho (1983). A lot of research results and technologies have been produced in the form of recommendations (National Agricultural Research Station, 1976; 1984; Orodho, 1983). These have followed systematic research work on:
a) Forage collection and evaluation aimed at collecting in Kenya and introducing from other countries a wide range of important plant ecotypes of potentially useful pasture and fodder species and evaluating these collections and introductions with reference to their usefulness in our Kenyan Pasture Development Programme. The performance of some of these materials have been compared in similar ecological zones of Kenya and Ethiopia (Ibrahim and Orodho, 1981).
b) Forage breeding aimed at developing through selection and breeding the most suitable forage materials identified during the forage collection and evaluation for various ecological zones and livestock farming systems.
c) Forage agronomy aimed at determining the most appropriate cultural practices such as forage establishment (seed-bed preparation, time of planting, method of planting, spacing, seeding rates), forage management (weed control, fertilizer requirements and rates, time and frequency of harvesting/grazing, cutting heights) and forage conservation (silage making, hay making and standing hay).
d) Animal production aimed at measuring and assessing the forages, farm by-products, crop residues and other wastes in terms of animal production parameters and
e) Range management aimed at developing appropriate range management practices (bush control, re-seeding of denuded areas, grazing management, stocking rates) and the improvement of suitable livestock (cattle, sheep, goats, camels) through proper livestock management practices and breeding/selection.
Gap Between Research and Extension
Dissemination Methods
Linkages
One of the principal objectives of the Ministries of Agriculture and Livestock Development is to promote agricultural production through provision of extension services. In 1980 the Ministry of Agriculture alone had more than 5,000 employees distributed at National, Provincial, District and Divisional levels as well as a vast representation in the rural areas up to sub-locational and village levels (Ministry of Agriculture, 1980).
Effective dissemination of relevant forage research results depends on many factors. It is often difficult to clearly understand the causes for either success or failure in the adoption of technology. Failure in adoption of forage research results by farmers may be as a result of an inappropriate technology being imposed on the farmers before the technology has been properly tested and tailored to the need of the farmers. Poor adoption of the forage results may also result from either the farmers, own socio-economic constraints or from the fault of the extension service. The latter is defined in terms of insufficient staff, inadequate trained staff, wrong sociological approach, lack of transport facilities, inadequate use of media or the issuing of wrong advice to farmers.
In many countries there has been continuous reference to insufficient liaison and consultations between research and extension services and the inadequate communication among extension officers and their front-line workers. Researchers have always argued that their advisory reports and recommendations were ignored, often left to gather dust in piles or bookshelves in Provincial and District Offices seldom reaching the front-line staff who are in actual contact with the farmers. Researchers complain that extension staff rarely visit research stations on their own initiative to obtain any useful research results or to report any adoption problems with farmers.
On the other hand, extension officers in many countries, argue that research reports are too technical and not presented in a form that can be readily absorbed by extension officers or farmers and that researchers did not go out often enough to the field to examine farmers, problems. Some extension officers complain that research is not often tailored to solve the needs of the farmers. One fundamental problem is substantial gap in terms of professional qualification and status between researchers and extension staff. The gap considered may not only be between research and extension but also between Agricultural Officers, whether research or extension, and the technical field level staff.
Kenya Government is aware that utilisation of research results will depend to a considerable extent on their proper dissemination to farmers. Programmes to improve extension services which include, among others, provision of additional transport facilities and training of extension staff are being implemented by both the Ministries of Agriculture and Livestock Development. There are a number of ways that are being used to make the flow of information to the field staff more effective.
Orodho (1983) discussed various methods currently being used in disseminating pasture research findings to farmers in addition to the normal extension methods. These methods include tours, field-days, demonstrations, pre-extension trials, fodder bulking sites, visits to Research Centres, correspondences with farmers, public media, lectures, seminars, scientific papers, farmers, publications, agricultural shows and Provincial Research Advisory Committees. Most of these methods involve research, extension, farmers and other complementary services working together. Some of these methods of research results dissemination have weaknesses for they are dependent on the initiative of individuals but are not built up into works programme as regular procedure.
Effective agricultural research can only be measured in terms of its contribution to solutions of the farmer and to the National Development problems. It is not enough to do research, obtain results and develop technology, the research results and technology developed must rapidly be transferred to farmers, fields and be adopted. There is therefore, need not only for effective Research-Extension-Farmer linkages, but also linkages with all those complementary services which play a role in the farmers, adoption of the developed technology as illustrated in Figure 1. For technology development there is need for strong linkages between Research, Extension and Farmer as illustrated by the bold lines on the diagram. However, for technology adoption, linkages should have been made with all the other important complementary services as illustrated by the dotted lines. Important complementary services that Research - Extension Farmers should have linkages with during livestock technology development are:
a) The input supplies such as Kenya Seed Company, Kenya Grain Growers, Co-operative Union (KGGCU).
b) The commodity Boards and Marketing agencies such as the National Cereals and Produce Board (NCPB), the Kenya Cooperative Creameries (KCC) and the Kenya Meat Commission (KMC).
c) Financial and credit organisation such as the Agricultural Finance Corporation, Commercial Banks, and
d) Price control services such as the committees that determine appropriate prices and/or give incentives to farmers and the bodies such as the Kenya Bureau of Standards that regulate quality of chemicals and livestock feeds.
Figure 1. Necessary linkage for effective technology development and adoption
Effective linkages between research, extension, farmer and other complementary services such as input supplies, credit organisations will ensure that the inputs recommended for increased livestock production will be available and will be supplied in areas where farmers can obtain them on time and that the financial organisations will be aware of the farmers, financial requirements ahead of time. Such effective linkages will enhance proper planning and facilitate research results and technology adoption.
The need for liaison is less clearly established for marketing agencies concerned with animal products. The Review Committee on Pasture, Seed and Fodder Development (Ministry of Agriculture, 1983) recommended that agencies like KCC, KMC, Kenya Seed Company should take an active role in supporting, morally and financially, pasture and fodder crop research activities and extension services since these agencies benefit directly from products of those crops.
Due to the declining farm sizes in Kenya, there has been a rapid move towards zero-grazing system of livestock management and thus high-yielding fodder crops such as Napier grass and farm by-products have inevitably become more popular with farmers. Stotz (1983) noted that crop residues consisting mainly of maize and bean stover provided an average of 35 - 45% of the total livestock feed requirements. The contribution of farm by-products to feeding cattle depends on farm size: the smaller the farm the larger the proportion of feed drawn from the crop residues compared to forages (Sands et al, 1982). These farm by-products are generally used throughout the year although their use tends to increase during dry periods. Following a survey of 18 districts in Kenya, Goldson (1977) gave a list of 21 different farm by-products that are commonly used by small-scale farmers (Appendix 1).
Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) is a tall productive perennial fodder grass that occurs naturally from sea level to over 2,000 metre altitude. It has high production/ha in both dry-matter and total digestible nutrients and is relatively drought tolerant. A number of high-yielding cultivars have been developed. With recommended management practices, Napier grass can provide continued supply of green herbage throughout the year and can act as a supplement feed during the dry months of the year. It fits well in intensive small-scale farming systems.
Apart from Napier grass, many other forages (Table 1) have been evaluated and found promising for various livestock production systems. From research results, recommendations have been made for these forages to be grown in the various ecological zones of Kenya. Williams (1970) pointed out that "if we are producing a great deal of unusable research, it means that we are choosing the wrong problems. If we are producing a great deal of usable but unused research, this means that we are researching beyond the absorptive capacity of the industry."
Because of the importance of Napier grass in the small-scale livestock farming enterprise, the Pasture Research Specialist Committee Meeting held at the National Agricultural Research Centre, Kitale in 1980, set up a Napier grass Review Committee comprising of the author and five other research officers. The Review Committee was to tour various parts of the country to determine whether research results and technology related to Napier grass establishment, management and utilisation are being followed by the small-scale farmers.
The committee developed two sets of questionnaires - one for the farmer and the other for the extension officers and undertook an extensive tour of 14 districts in 6 provinces of Kenya (Appendix 2). During the tour which took 18 days, over 50 farms were visited and detailed discussions held with each farmer or farm manager. Discussions were also held with about 60 Government Extension Officers at the provincial, district and sub-divisional levels. The discussions held and questionnaires filled were mainly centred on:
a) Whether farmers knew and followed research recommendations and if not, what were the main reasons for not doing so.b) What further research was felt necessary on Napier grass establishment, management and utilisation.
c) What constraints prevented Napier grass development in the area.
Although this was a Napier grass review mission, some very useful information was gathered on the use of other forage and farm by-products (Kusewa et al, 1983). The Napier Grass Review Committee confirmed that Napier grass was one of the most important fodder crops used by small-scale farmers in the country. It was noted that although many farmers are following Some of the research recommendations on Napier grass establishment, management and utilisation, there were some farmers who reported lack of awareness of research results and technology on this important grass. A number of constraints were reported as hindering Napier grass development and adoption of research results as shown in Figure 2. Some of the most important constraints given were:
a) Lack of adequate extension staff to reach more farmers
b) Lack of farmer's awareness of the importance of Napier grass use
c) Lack of adequate transport for extension staff
d) Reluctance on the part of farmers to accept and adopt research recommendations.
e) Lack of finance by farmers
d) Unavailability of planting materials
It was also noted that a few extension officers were not aware of the availability of research results and recommendations on Napier grass to be extended to farmers. This indicated some break-down in communication or inadequate linkage either between research and extension service or between the agricultural officers and the field level extension staff.
Table 1: Some of the promising grasses and legumes collected for various ecological zones of Kenya.
|
GRASSES |
LEGUMES |
FODDER GRASSES |
FODDER GRASSES |
|
Brachiaria brizantha |
Clitoria ternatea |
Avena sativa |
Atriplex spp. |
|
Cenchrus ciliaris |
Centrosema pubescence |
(Oats Cv. Suregrain & Lampton) |
Dolichos Lablab |
|
Chloris gayana (cv Boma, Elmba, Masaba, Mbarara & Pokot Rhodes) |
Desmodium uncinatum (Silver leaf desmodium) |
Pennisetum purpureum (cv Bana, Clone 13, French Cameroon, Uganda hairless |
Leucaena leucocephala |
|
Chloris roxburghiana |
|
P. purpureum × P. typhoides |
Lupinus spp |
|
Cynodon plestostachyus |
Desmodium intortum (Green leaf Desmodium) |
Panicum maximum (Giant panicum) |
Prosopis spp. |
|
Cynodon dactylon |
Lotononis bainesii |
Setaria splendida (Giant Setaria) |
Acacia spp. |
|
Dactylis glomerata |
Macroptilium atropureum (Stylo) |
Sorghum sudanense (Sudan grass) |
|
|
Eragrostis superba |
Medicago sativa (Lucern Hunter river) |
Ipomea batata (Sweet Potatoes) |
|
|
Enteropogon macrostachyus |
Neonotonia wightii (Glycine) |
|
|
|
Festuca arundinacea |
Phaseolus atropurpureus (Siratro) |
Tripsacum laxum (Guatemala grass) |
|
|
Lolium perenne |
Stylosanthes guyanensis |
|
|
|
Panicum coloratum |
Stylosanthes gracilis |
Gana edulis (Edible cane) |
|
|
Panicum maximum |
Stylosanthes scabra |
Symphytum paregrium (Russiana Confrey) |
|
|
Pennisetum clandestinum |
Trifolium semipilosum (Kenya millet clover) |
Zea mays (all types of maize) |
|
|
Phalaris tuberosa |
|
|
|
|
Setaria ancepts |
|
|
|
(cv Nandi & Nasiwa setaria)
Key:
LT - Lack of transport for Ext, staff
UP - Unavailability of planting material
LB - Lack of improved breads of livestock
RA - Reluctance to accept new ideas by farmers
LF - Lack of Finance by farmers
LA - Lack of land adjudication/communial grazing system
DC - Dry condition for the Napier variety
KL - Keeping local Zebus discourage Napier growing
LP - Lack of proper co-ordinated programmes on fodder development
UN - Unawareness on Napier use
LD - Long distance travelled to get Napier inhibit spread
TE - Thin extension staff on ground
IM - Insufficient milk marketing channels
ST - Stocking rate low
Farmers also indicated that long distance travelled to get the vegetatively propagated Napier grass planting material inhibited spread of this fodder crop. Most farmers had obtained their planting materials from either Government Farmer's Training Centres, their neighbours or from Government Research Stations as shown in Figure 3.
From the time this Napier grass review mission was carried out to-date, the Ministry of Livestock Development has made numerous efforts to develop and extend fodder crops to small-scale livestock farmers in the country. A fodder bulking project was started which multiplied a lot of fodder crops in the country at sites within easy reach of farmers. Many farmers have benefited from the planting materials bulked at those sites. A United Nations Development Programme (UNDP/FAO project) was started in 1980 to develop promising forage materials and extend these to farmers through pre-extension trials (FAO, 1985). This project was extended in 1984 with an objective of promoting the use of improved fodder and pasture crops to small-scale farmers (Ibrahim, 1988). A National Dairy Development Project which started in 1980 is now covering 14 districts in Kenya, extending the zero-grazing package to the small-scale farmers.
Inadequate extension services is one of the many obstacles to increase livestock production that the Ministry of Livestock Development is aware of and is planning to overcome (Ministry of Livestock Development, 1985). The Ministry is steadily improving and expanding its livestock extension activities and staff especially those related to demonstrations that improve farmer's management practices and awareness of livestock production technologies.
The Napier grass review mission observed that some farmers were reluctant to adopt research results and recommendations. Other farmers tended to modify these recommendations to suit their farming situations and circumstances. This indicated that there is need to evaluate research recommendations under those farmers conditions and ultimately come up with appropriate domains tailored to the farmers conditions. An on-farm research as an effective means of dissemination, utilisation and adoption of research technology is discussed below.
On-farm biological research is one of the main tools in the farming systems approach to develop appropriate technology for the small-scale limited resource farms. An on-farm team basically composed of a socio-economist, forage agronomist, animal production specialist and extension officer identifies farmer's problems through diagnostic surveys, priorities these problems and then brings them back to the research centres for experimentation and technology development.
In order for the researcher to properly evaluate the technology he is developing, it is necessary for the trials to be conducted under the real condition of the small-scale livestock farmer for whom the technology is being developed. This provides opportunity for the researcher to fully understand the conditions under which the farmer is operating and the extension officers and farmer to actively participate in the forage evaluation process.
Technology frequently responds differently to environment. Most small-scale limited resource farmers, however, are not able to apply inputs required to achieve maximum forage production similar to those in Research Centres.
Because response to livestock technology can be different in those less optimal conditions of poor environment found in farms, it is essential to evaluate technology under these conditions. By evaluating the technology both in the station and under various farmers Environments. the technology is subjected to all the good and bad that the farmers are going to give it if they adopted it.
Key:
TC - Teachers' training colleges
RB - River banks
RC - Research centres
FF - Farmers' own farm
DP - Demonstration plots
NF - Neighbours' farm
CR - Cooperative ranches
FT - Farmers' training centres
DF - Distant farmers
GF - Govt. farms
SG - Show grounds
BC - Bulking centres
The environment in which farmers produce forage crops is the result of all factors that affect livestock production so that livestock farmers are usually associated with each environment. Other factors such as capital and labour also influence the kind of environment under which forage crops are being produced. Management which is responsible for allocating all the resources to different enterprises in the farm is ultimately the most important determinant of the crop environment.
In order to begin evaluating the influence of farmer management on technology, farmers must be given an opportunity to participate actively even in research managed trials. In order to evaluate the economic factors on the technology, large plots must be used. This means only a few treatments are included in the trials and usually there are no replications.
For many years, the Kenya Government has had sound livestock development policies which have encouraged the development and utilisation of forages and agricultural by-products. A lot of forage research work has been done in various research centres and recommendations formulated for farmers. Most of the research results on forage have been utilised by farmers to increase livestock production in the country. There have been cases, however, where not all research results and recommendations on forages have been adopted.
Generation and adoption of appropriate technology depends on an interdisciplinary team and approach organised into an interacting and cohesive group involving researchers, extension staff, farmers and other complementary services that affect the technology adoption. An on-farm research approach is an effective method that will enhance testing and adoption of forage research results and technology because it incorporates both the farmer and the extension staff actively in the research evaluation processes and the researcher can participate actively in extension activities. Because onfarm testing utilises a wide range of farm environment, the feedback from the farmer is immediate and the proper understanding of the technology aids in the participating of clientele into most appropriate recommendation domains for the benefit of the technology adoption by farmers.
I would like to offer my special appreciation to Dr. S. Chema, the Deputy Director/Livestock, Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) for nominating me to attend this workshop. I also would like to thank Dr. B.N. Majisu, the Director KARI for allowing me to attend the workshop and to present the paper. Funds that enabled me to attend the workshop were kindly provided by the PANESA and ARNAB co-ordinators to whom I am most grateful.
Edward, D.C. 1940. A vegetation Map of Kenya with particular reference to grassland types. J. Ecol. 28:377-385
F.A.O. 1985. Forage plant development and seed production, Kenya. Project findings and recommendations. AG: DP/KEN/80/003 Terminal Report. UNDP/FAO, Rome.
Goldson, J.R. 1977. Final report of the Pasture Research Project. Nairobi Kenya, Ministry of Agriculture.
Ibrahim, K.M. and Orodho, A.B. 1981. Test adaptation trials of forage plants in major ecological zones in Ethiopia and Kenya. XIV International Grassland Congress Proceedings. 15-25 Lexington, Kentucky, U.S.A.
Ibrahim, K.M. 1988. Forage Plant Development and Extension. Project Technical Report AG: DP/KEN/84/007: UNDP/FAO, Rome.
Kusekwa, P.K., Orodho, A.B., Okech, A.G.O., Kavelenge, J.E.E., Irungu, K.R.G., and Ndiragu, C.E.M. 1983. An interim report on a review mission on Napier grass management production and utilisation in Kenya. National Agricultural Research Station, Kitale.
Ministry of Agriculture, 1980. Management Manual for the Department of Agriculture, Nairobi, Kenya.
Ministry of Agriculture, 1983. Report on the Review Committee on pasture seed and fodder development. National Agricultural Research Station, Kitale.
Ministry of Livestock Development, Kenya, 1980. Livestock development in Kenya. A policy statement, Nairobi.
Ministry of Livestock Development, Kenya. 1980. Animal production research in Kenya. A draft policy statement. Nairobi.
National Agricultural Research Station, Kitale. 1976. Recommendations for growing pasture and fodder crop in Kenya. (Memo).
Orodho, A.B. 1983. Pasture research in Kenya. National Agricultural Research Station, P.O. Box 450, Kitale. (Memo).
Republic of Kenya. 1981. Sessional Paper No. 4 on National Food Policy. Government Printer, Nairobi.
Republic of Kenya. 1986. Sessional Paper No. 1 on economic management for renewed growth. Government Printer, Nairobi.
Said, A.N. 1985. Past and current trends of pasture research in Kenya. In: J.A. Kategile (ed), Pasture improvement research in Eastern and southern Africa. Proceedings of a workshop held in Harare, Zimbabwe, 17-21 September, 1984. IDRC-237e. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa, Ont. pp. 180-209.
Sands, M.W., Fitzhugh, H.A., Kekovolo, J. and Gachuki, P. 1982. Results of small farm system survey with implications to the potential for dual purpose small farms in Kenya. Farm Management Handbook of Kenya, Vol. IV. Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, Nairobi. 140 pp.
Senga, W.M. 1976. Kenya's agricultural sector. In: Agricultural development in Kenya 0 An economic assessment. Oxford University Press, Nairobi, Kenya.
Stotz, D. 1983. Production techniques and economics of smallholder livestock production systems in Kenya. Farm Management Handbook of Kenya, Vol. IV. Ministry of Livestock Development, Animal Production Division, Nairobi. 140 pp.
Williams, B.R. 1970. Funding research, development and extension for a flexible agriculture. Paper presented at a Symposium on Self Perpetuating Inertia in Australian Agriculture, University of Sydney, Australia.
Appendix 1. Farm by-products used by small-scale farmers.
|
By-products used |
% of districts in which by-products were used |
|
Crushed maize grain (rejects) |
88.8 |
|
Green maize stalk |
83.3 |
|
Potato vines |
77.8 |
|
Maize stover |
72.2 |
|
Brewers waste (Machicha) |
66.7 |
|
Banana stems and leaves |
61.1 |
|
Vegetable waste |
55.6 |
|
Bean and soyabean hulls |
50.0 |
|
Sunflower heads and seeds |
50.0 |
|
Sugarcane tops |
22.2 |
|
Pineapple waste |
16.7 |
|
Sisal-leaf waste |
11.1 |
|
Cowpea waste |
11.1 |
|
Pigeon pea waste |
11.1 |
|
Coconut cake |
5.6 |
|
Coffee husks |
5.5 |
|
Cotton-seed cake |
5.5 |
|
Simsim cake |
5.5 |
|
Cassava peels |
5.6 |
|
Millet stover |
5.5 |
|
Chick pea |
5.5 |
Source: Goldson (1977)
Appendix 2. Administrative district boundaries of Kenya.
* Districts where Napier grass review mission toured farms and held discussions with farmers and extension staff.
