Gateway to Land and Water Information: Uzbekistan national report

News : Report LADA Case study Uzbekistan with emphasis on salinization is available in LADA Website and through [Link 5.1.1].[04/12/03]

Overview

Land resources

Water resources (AQUASTAT)

Plant nutrient resources

Hot spots

Bright spots

Challenges and viewpoints

References / Related internet links

1.1 Geography and administrative units

UNEP (1991) reported degradation of some 43 million ha of irrigated lands, representing 30% of 145 million ha of irrigated area in the world’s lands, which are subject to salinity related problems. The Central Asian Republics are explicit example of the phenomena. In 1992, the UN has declared the Aral Sea region as an area of the world ecological disaster. Beyond the highly visible problems in the immediate surroundings of the Aral Sea, as a whole Uzbekistan is currently facing severe environmental problems of which the secondary salinisation and waterlogging are the most dangerous. In addition, many soils are polluted by pesticides, which were extensively used in the past. The problem of food security is particularly real and complex in Uzbekistan and in all the countries of the former Soviet Union attempting to liberalize their markets through various reforms.UNEP (1991) reported degradation of some 43 million ha of irrigated lands, representing 30% of 145 million ha of irrigated area in the world's lands, which are subject to salinity related problems. The Central Asian Republics are explicit example of the phenomena. In 1992, the UN has declared the Aral Sea region as an area of the world ecological disaster. Beyond the highly visible problems in the immediate surroundings of the Aral Sea, as a whole Uzbekistan is currently facing severe environmental problems of which the secondary salinisation and waterlogging are the most dangerous. In addition, many soils are polluted by pesticides, which were extensively used in the past. The problem of food security is particularly real and complex in Uzbekistan and in all the countries of the former Soviet Union attempting to liberalize their markets through various reforms.

Administratively, the country is divided into 12 viloyats (oblasts or provinces) and one autonomous Republic of Karakalpakstan located in the far west of the country in the zone of environmental disaster related to drying of the Aral Sea. City of Tashkent is the capital of the country; it is administrative and economic-industrial centre, constitutionally selected as an independent subject of the political and administrative structure of the country.

1.2 Socio-economic features

About 50% of the total land resources which are suitable for irrigation in Central Asia are within the Republic of Uzbekistan. Agriculture of Uzbekistan contributes greatly to the national economy and also effects directly on the health of the population in the region. At the same time agriculture is a dominant socio-economic sector in the basin, and an irrigated agriculture, in particular. Some 30 to 60% of the population are employed in this sector.

In the country before independence all commodity manufacture of basic agricultural products was concentrated practically in state and collective farms which in respect of planning and management, agricultural products realization, logistics, water use and other components of economic infrastructure practically had no great difference and been subordinated to the state monopoly in planning and realization of agricultural programs.

After declaration of independence and commencement of the market reforms the program on development of multi-structural agricultural production is implemented; this includes shirkat (cooperative) farms of leased agricultural production and dekhkan (peasant) farms concentrating their activity on extended family (dekhkan) holdings, on long-term land lease base.

The public sector in agriculture was reduced up to 1.2-1.3%. Gross agricultural output production by category of farms is:

- dekhkan farms over - 60 %
- agricultural enterprises - 36 %
- private farms - 4 %

Distribution of GDP in Republic of Uzbekistan by economy sectors on 01.01.1999 (%):

Gross Domestic Product - 100%
a) gross added value - 84,5%
· industry - 15,0%
· agriculture - 26,4%
· transport and communications - 6,2%
· construction - 7,8%
· trade and public catering - 8,5%
· others, including sphere of services - 20,6%
b) products and export-import
transaction net taxes - 15,5%

Structure of managing subjects of Republic of Uzbekistan by forms of ownership and legal organizational forms, (%):

· state enterprises - 11,2 %
· joint and foreign enterprises - 1,9 %
· private enterprises - 45,1 %
· collective enterprises - 40,3%
· others - 1,5 %
TOTAL: - 100%
or 1 881 100 units of the registered managing subjects.

Current parameters (on 01.01.2000) of water supply condition:
Percentage of urban population connected to water pipe - 92
Percentage of agricultural population provided with water supply systems - 74

In Uzbekistan the program on rural social infrastructure development is carried out. About 2000 km of water-pipes, 4 500 to 5 000 km of gas networks, over 200 rural medical first-aid post are annually commissioned. The presidential program on re-structuring and development of education using the newest world experience in this area is being implemented.

In Uzbekistan the irrigated agriculture is the main foodstuff source, which provides up to 96% of gross agricultural production. At present re-structuring of agriculture is implemented in the interests of national food security and food production increase. Although Uzbekistan since 1991 has achieved food security, cotton production drop during the last several years has been a serious concern to the Government. In 1999 the total crops area on the irrigated lands had been 3 565 000 ha, of them 1 359 000 ha was allocated under grain, including 1 100 000 ha for wheat. The total of grain and leguminous crops has made 2 899 500 tons in the country that has allowed to reduce import sharply.

Institutional transformations in agriculture have provided significant growth of production and not only grain realization, but also vegetables, fruit, animal industry products which was achieved mainly through private sector. At present production of 90 % of potato, 65 % of vegetables, 55 % of meat, 50 % of milk and about 40 % of eggs are concentrated in a private sector.

Uzbekistan has favourable premises for sustainable development of agriculture. Deepening of economic reforms and future infrastructure changes of economy will promote transferring from agrarian republic into industrially developed country with intensive development of agriculture. The socio-economic objective for the future would then be the capacity to produce as much foodstuff as possible in Uzbekistan with a minimum of 3000 calories/day per person. The necessary increase in foodstuff production will, therefore, require a major effort, including finances for investment and both land and water management.

[Table 1.2.2: Operating costs per one ton of the main crop in Republic of Uzbekistan, in %]

Last years due to re-structuring of agricultural production and transition to market forms of managing, reduction and termination of subsidies for given services was observed, as well as reduction of payment in total expenses.

Now the tendency of payment increase in total expenses, and also income of farmers outside of their primary activity (personal, a part-time farm, craft etc.) is observed.

1.3 Climate

Climate of Uzbekistan is extreme continental, arid and noted for abundance of solar radiation, small cloudiness, and poor atmospheric precipitation. The territory of the country is characterized by cold, unstable winter and dry, hot summer. Thermal regime in winter period is formed under influence of dry, cold, Arctic and Siberian air mass of the north and tropical air from the south. In summer the territory is under influence of local tropical air. The mountain relief greatly effects on climate formation.

In a flat part of the country total solar radiation is from 130 to 160 ccal/cm2 annually on the average, actual duration of solar light is 3 000 to 3 100 hours. In mountains duration of solar light is substantially determined by closeness of horizon, slope exposition and cloudiness. At altitude about 2000 m (Angren plateau) its value ranges from 2300 to 2500 hours per year.

In plains monthly average temperatures are increased from the north to the south: in January from –8º to +2º and +3º, being reduced in the most severe winters up to –30º in the north and to -22º and –25º in the south. In the hottest month (July) the average monthly temperature reaches +31º, +32º with an absolute maximum in a long-term aspect +50º (Termez).

Mean annual amount of precipitation in a flat part ranges from 100-150 mm (desert) to 200-400 mm (foothills). The greatest amount of precipitation drops out in winter and spring months (60-70 %). Autumn precipitation is much less and absolutely insignificant precipitation is observed in summer months. The droughty period in desert lasts 6-7 months (since May till November), in foothills it is reduced to 4-5 months. As approaching foothills the amount of precipitation increases up to 800-900 mm and more. Distribution of precipitation in mountains depends on height above sea level, forms of relief and exposition of slopes.

Deficiency of moisture in the southern part of Uzbekistan for April-September reaches about 1300-1600 mm. In the largest oasis area having an ancient irrigated agriculture practice the special microclimate of atmospheric near soil layer is formed.

2.1 Physiography

Republic of Uzbekistan occupies a large territory with various forms of relief and natural conditions. The total land resources in the republic are 44 410 million ha.

i) desert (Kyzylkum), steppe and semi-arid region covering 60% of the country;
ii) fertile valleys (including the Ferghana valley, Samarkand oasis, etc) which borders with the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers;
iii) mountainous areas in the east with peaks 4500m above sea level (Tien Shan and Gissaro-Alay Ridges).

The various oblasts (provinces) have been grouped into approximate regional areas as follows:

Republic of Uzbekistan covers 32% of the Aral Sea basin, which is divided into 2 parts: Turan drainless plain and mountain systems of the Pamir and Tien-Shan [Map 2.1.2 (pdf 154kb)]. Paleogeographical conditions (sea transgression, paleoclimate) stipulated high salt accumulation in soils, subsurface and ground waters. Turan drainless plain, surrounded by mountains, provides favorable conditions for geochemical flows in creating salt accumulation zone. The arid climate contributes to relic salt amounts in eluvial and eluvial-accumulative landscape types and hence to the soil salinisation.

Relief and hydrogeological peculiar features make possible to identify three provinces:

i) low accumulative plains, including coastal, alluvial and alluvial-proluvial lowlands;
ii) high plains, plateaus and mountain area of denudation highlands;
iii) mountain setting, presented by zones of denudation and geochemical runoff.

Transition and accumulation of geochemical flows characterize low plains. There are exit areas, suffered from surface salt accumulation, recent hydromorphic landscapes with close groundwater table (<3 m) as well as areas, for which soil salinisation is especially characteristic at high depth. In high plains and plateaus salt affected soils and the soils with gypsum are dominant. They are stable in their salinity or subjected to slow salt removal.

2.2 Soils

The territory of Uzbekistan has several distinct zones, determined by the prevailing natural conditions: a warm subtropical belt with desert, semi-deserts in the foothills and bushy steppes. About 69% of the irrigated lands are located in the desert and semi- desert zones. As a typical undrained land in arid zones, the potential for irrigation and irrigated areas in Uzbekistan suffers from soil salinity.

To assess soil types two methods have been used: soil classification of Uzbekistan accepted by former Soviet Union, and FAO method [ISEAM EC-Tacis project].

Main types of soils by local classification and its humus content are shown in Table 2.2.1.

The most extensive major soil grouping on the territory of Uzbekistan is Calcisols. It covers more than 5.30004 million ha, or about 11.85% of the total area. The second most extensive major soil grouping is Solonchaks with about 5211.87 thousand ha, or more than 11.6% of the total area including 3.60% with Calcisol and Arenosols. Cambisol covers more than 5068.00 thousand ha, or about 11.33% of the area. More than 5366.38 thousand ha (about 12% of area) are covered by Solonetz. These soils are found throughout the western part of Uzbekistan in Usturt plateau. Arenosols and Regosols cover area of 2063.62 and 2270.58 thousand ha, respectively. Four major soil groupings: Fluvisol, Gleysols, Kastanozem and Anthrosols occupy together about 2475 thousand ha, or approximately 5.53% of the area. Sand with rock outcrops and other formations occupy about 14528.73 thousand ha, or about 32.47% of the total land area.

2.3 Agroecological systems

Soil capability in Uzbekistan is defined by a number of inherent properties (agro-physical, agrochemical, capacity of biologically active layer etc.) and estimated on fertility class. Quality class is a comparative rating of soil quality (natural and acquired) at an average level agricultural practice and intensification of agriculture.

Class of fertility is established on most constant attributes (soil texture and parent materials, melkozem capacity, skeleton, gypsum) and characterizes potential class fertility. The group of fertility is determined to dynamic attributes (genetic characteristic, salinity, solonetzicity, erodibility, cultivation degree, moisture) and characterizes fertility in present conditions.

Quality class is established on a 100-ball scale and it is suitable for rating irrigated soil under all other crops. The value of one point (productivity of crop corresponds to 1 point) allows to determine efficiency of soil resources use.

There are ten classes and five agricultural groups (cadaster zone) in the irrigated area of Uzbekistan. These groups are identified on natural and potential quality of soils. Main classes and groups of fertility are given in Table 2.3.1.

Soil suitability is determined by its capability to produce crop yields and by opportunity to use it with a view of agricultural production.

Meliorative land fund of potentially suitable for irrigation and the area being under irrigation is 11,797,200 ha. Remaining 32,613,100 ha include pastures, hayfields, and unsuitable area (mountains, sand, rock yields, highly deflated and other lands. Land resources of Uzbekistan are given in Table 2.3.2

2.4 Wetlands, mangroves and inland valley bottoms

2.5 Inundation Land Types

2.6 Natural hazards

2.7 Land cover

2.8 Land use

The basic types of land use in Uzbekistan are: I) arable land; ii) perennial plantings; iii) hayfields and pastures; iv) forests, and v) composite land. Ratio of the areas between the basic types for 2000 is shown in Chart 2.8.1 and Chart 2.8.2.

Ratio of land use types in irrigated zone and general structure of used areas is differed: in irrigated zone the arable land (77.5%) prevails. In total agriculturally used area the arable land occupies only 13.1%, and 77,8% is occupied by hayfields and pastures concentrated in dry zone.

Arable land is annually cultivated area under tilled crops. Natural conditions of Uzbekistan allow to grow one yield of the main crops annually. Cultivation of repeated crops with the purpose to grow after crop (after winter wheat, early potato and vegetables) is insignificant and limited, mainly, due to deficiency of irrigating water. The structure of arable land is represented in Chart 2.8.3 and Chart 2.8.4.

Perennial plantings - these are lands occupied by fruiters (large fruits, drupaceous) and bushes (vines). Gardens and vines are concentrated mainly in irrigated zone of 339,7 thousand ha (96,2 %) and only 3,8% in dry area.

Pastures - the area used for animal husbandry. Pastures on natural area in dry zone make 22218,5 thousand ha. These are basic forage reserve of sheep breeding. Efficiency of pastures depends not only on the area, but also on watering degree, as without watering place, pastures cannot be used practically. The area of watered pastures makes 87,5% of the total area (19547,6 thousand ha). With irrigated hayfields and pastures it occupies only 44,1 thousand ha (20 %).

According to environment variety (relief, climate) pastures are subdivided into flat, plain-hilly, piedmont -mountain and high mountain pastures. Deserted plain pastures occupy significant area in Republic of Karakalpakstan, Bukhara and Navoi Oblasts which are the basic areas of astraknan sheep breeding The pastures are used within a year but due to rainfall less than 300 mm per year, these are ineffective.

Foothill pastures are concentrated in Dzhizak, Kashkadarya, Navoi, Samarkand and Surkhandarya Oblasts. In spring and autumn seasons these are used for pasturing of livestock and horses, but sheep and goats are pastured there in other seasons of year. The rainfall is 300-400 mm per year, therefore the pastures are high-yielding. Pastures of mountains are of summer use and suitable for pasturing all kinds of animals.

Forests are wood plantings in natural conditions used for timber manufacture, and reserves, as well as forest belts on agricultural land in irrigated zone. Bohgara forests make 1467 thousand ha, irrigated 44,9 thousand ha.

Composite area is a mixture of land use types on one plot (trees and crops), it is represented by homestead land. Total area of homestead land makes 651,4 thousand ha (2,3 %). In structure of rrigated zone these occupy 489,1 thousand ha (11,4 %).

2.9 Land use change

Change of land use is estimated for the last decade (1990-2000). The tendency is presented in Table 2.9.1.

Analysis of the data shows significant changes in land use and land re-structuring between 1991 to 2000. In irrigated zone there is reduction of irrigated arable land and long-term plantings, growth of personal plots, forest belts. Due to deterioration of meliorative condition of the land, the areas of follow land have been considerably increased. The tendency of land use intensity is characterized as stable.

2.10 Land Productivity

2.11 Environmental Impact of land uses

To date cotton monoculture together with misbalance of NPK to be applied into the soil, deterioration of irrigation regime and drainage have resulted in degradation of separate cultivation areas, especially in risk zone of irrigated agriculture down to partial retire of irrigated area from agricultural production.

Over-use of nitrogen fertilizers, especially ammonium nitrate to compensate depleted soil fertility and shortage of P and K in the soil led to spreading of reservoirs eutrophication and nitrate contamination of water sources. Under present conditions the great attention is devoted to application of mixed fertilizers, and nutrients control in the soil.

In connection with elimination of cotton monoculture and extension of small grains area some conditions for are being created to rehabilitate soil structure, reduce drain flow mineralization entering into water sources, decrease this flow nitrate pollution and to improve NPK balance. It is noted the growth tendency in crop yields under relative reduction of mineral fertilizers to be applied.

Republic of Uzbekistan is referred to those countries of Euro-Asian Region which vulnerable from the point of climate changing problem, which is confirmed in November 1996 at the seminar «Climate changing and vulnerability assessment» ? November 1997?, carried out by Global Ecological Fund of the UN Development Program, Project 'Uzbekistan Climate Changing Study'.

3.1 Hydrography

Uzbekistan water resources information is available at AQUASTAT (choose Uzbekistan from the list).

Available water resources of the Republic of Uzbekistan are formed from renewed surface and underground water of natural and return water of anthropogenic origin. Water resources are subdivided into national and transboundary:

Volumes of natural mean annual flow of the rivers for the period of actual observations are 123 m3/year including 81.5 km3 in Amu-Darya basin (for the period 1932/33 to 1998/99), and 41.6 km3 in Syr-Darya basin (for the period 1926/27 to 1998/99).

At present in Uzbekistan it is used about 42 km3 of transboundary rivers flow, 34 km3 of this is from Amu Darya and Syr-Darya. The surface flow formed in Uzbekistan makes up 11.5 km3 (Table 3.1.1).

The flow of the rivers is characterized by considerable annual and long-term irregularity: in low water year (90% probability) the flow is less by 23 km3, than in mean water year. Groups of high water years come in 6 to 10 years; their duration is from 2 to 3 years, but some individual groups takes place more frequently. Low water periods come in 4 to 7 years; these are of long character (up to 6 years).

In strategy of water resources use the main interest is of available water resources which take into account not only a natural flow, but also its regulation by reservoirs, and also include use of return and underground water. Their estimated value was determined in basin Schemes (Master Plans) developed for Syr-Darya and Amu Darya (1983-1984) for present and future conditions of water management development in the states of the Aral Sea region.

There wasn't any new study on interstate water apportioning after Schemes of 1983-1984 and the proportion of water apportioning and the estimated limits of water consumption established by these Schemes still are recognized by all Central Asian states, Interstate Coordination Water Management Commission (ICWMC) is guided by them too.

Available water resources in the Aral Sea Basin at actual long-term of Syr-Darya flow regulation and seasonal regulation of Amu-Darya flow make 121.69 km3/year at 90 % probability.

On condition of construction of Rogun reservoir on Vakhsh river for long-term regulation of Amu-Darya flow and realization of other technical interventions, available water resources in Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya basins would make 133,6 km3 a whole according to Scheme studies. Out of specified value Uzbekistan's share is 72,4 km3, including 61,1 km3 for irrigation and 11,3 km3 for non-irrigation consumers: communal, industrial, agricultural water supply, etc.

Established volume of available water resources provides also feeding of Aral Seaside and Aral Sea using the rest volume of Syr-Darya and Amu-Darya flows. According to the Schemes supply into Aral Seaside over Syr-Darya would make 3,25 km3/year, and over Amu-Darya 3,2 km of sanitary drawdown, 1 km3 of fishery drawdown and 1 km3 for delta flooding. Thus, the stipulated supply in Aral Seaside area would be 8,4 km3 by two rivers yearly.

Volumes of actually available water resource of Republic of Uzbekistan within increased water availability by sources of formation is given in Table 3.1.2.

In low water years these parameters are reduced up to 54,2 km3 and lower that much less than limit and the volume established by Schemes and to be corrected on really developing water management conditions.

National renewed water resources of Republic of Uzbekistan in conditions of long-term regulated flow of Syr-Darya river and seasonal regulated flow of Amu-Darya make 11,5 km/year or 18.4% from total quantity of water consumption and 457 m3 per capita yearly at present level.

The surface flow of the rivers undergoes significant changes due to anthropogenic impact. Upgrowth of water intake from the rivers into irrigation canals and losses in canals cause a quantitative flow reduction, and discharge of collector drainage water worsen its natural mode and quality.

The tendency of flow change in Syr-Darya and Amu-Darya under influence of anthropogenic factors for the period 1932 to 1999 is graphically illustrated in Chart 3.1.1.

Since early 60-s irrevocable consumption of the river flow was doubled, and at present level it is increased 4 times in comparison with 30-s and 40-s. Chart 3.1.2 illustrates change of mineralization in the main sections of Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya for the period from 1932 to 1999.

Since early 60-s irrevocable consumption of the river flow was doubled, and at present level it is increased 4 times in comparison with 30-s and 40-s. Figure 3.2 illustrates change of mineralization in the main sections of Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya for the period from 1932 to 1999.

Total reserves of underground waters over Uzbekistan are 18,9 km3, including 7,6 km3 of mineralised water less than 1g/l, and 7,9 km3 of water with 1 up to 3 g/l.

As a whole in years of increased water probability and mean water years requirement of water-consumers of Republic of Uzbekistan is satisfied completely. Crisis situations arise in low water years, especially for regions of middle and downstream regions of Syr-Darya and Amu-Darya.

At the same time transition of Toktogul hydrosystem of long-term regulation of Syr-Darya flow into power regime of operation has aggravated a problem of water supply for Syr-Darya and Djizzak Oblasts during vegetation period.

In the territory of Republic of Uzbekistan irrigation development has resulted in formation of artificial lakes, sinks for collector drainage water. In the Amu-Darya river basin Sinchankul, Dengozkul and Solyenoe Lakes were formed in middle stream in territory of Kashkadarya and Bukhara Oblasts. Downstream, in Amu-Darya delta there is a whole system of lakes, previously fed by Amu-Darya flow. Subsequently, some began to be used as sinks for collector drainage flow. Among such lakes the lake Sudochye having the great ornithological value of regional scale is stood out.

In the Syr-Darya river basin, the Arnasayi system of lakes, as sink for collector drainage water from irrigated area was formed in the territory of Syr-Darya and Djizzak Oblasts.

Last years, in connection with regular catastrophic winter drawdowns from Chardarya reservoir located in the territory of Kazakhstan and adjoining to the lake system water volumes have reached 35 km3 there, and territory of water surface is about 2200 km. Arnasai system of lakes has turned into large natural and economic object which influence is spread over practically four Oblasts of Uzbekistan: Tashkent, Syr-Darya, Djizak and Navoi.

At present in the Republic of Uzbekistan there are 52 reservoirs with total volume of more than 19,3 km3; 21 with total volume 5 km3 in Syr-Darya basin and 31 with total volume of more than 14.3 km3 in the Amu-Darya basin. Two large reservoirs in the Syr-Darya river basin: Charvak of total volume about 1.99 km3 on the river Chirchik near Tashkent and Andijan reservoir with volume 1.9 km3 on the river Karadarya in Andijan Oblast are multipurpose and used for irrigation, floods control and for electric power generation.

In the Amu-Darya river basin, in its downstream (Tuyamuyun section) there is the largest multipurpose reservoir with volume of 7,8 km3 consisting of four separate parts, which are territorially located in Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. However, the management of the reservoir is carried out by the Uzbek party. Amu-Darya downstream area, especially in the northern Aral Seaside, in the Republic of Karakalpakstan, experiences the great problems with the communal and potable water supply caused by firstly by drying of the Aral Sea and increase of subsoil water mineralization.

Total theoretical potential of the hydroelectric power on the rivers of Uzbekistan is estimated in 85000 to 90000 GWt/year, including 15000 GWt/year economically suitable for development; actual capacity makes 1739,0 GWt/year. In 2000 production of the electric power at hydroelectric power stations has made 4.9 bln kWt/hour that more than by 20% is less mean annual production for the last years. It is explained by catastrophic low water in 2000 in the Aral Sea Basin.

In 2000 total water intake has made 54.2 km3. This sum includes water intake from surface water and return flow (47.8 km3) and underground water (6.4 km3). Irrigation intake from surface water has made 44.1 km3 and 3.3 km3 from underground water.

Total intake by non-irrigation water users including irrevocable losses of power system (104 mln m3) and fishery (368 mln m3) has made 6,8 km3. Total quantity of irrigation intake from surface sources in 2000 was reduced to 16% in connection with low water against a mid-annual level of the last five years.

3.2 Irrigation and drainage

The history of irrigation development in Uzbekistan has more than 2500 years and it is marked in seven oasis's at the present territory of the country: Tashkent and Ferghana valleys, Zarafshan valley in the central part, Kashkadarya and Surkhan-Darya valleys in a southeast, and Khorezm oasis and Karakalpakstan in the delta of the Amu Darya river.

To the beginning of the last century the total irrigated area in present territory of Uzbekistan has reached 1.2 mln ha, and by the end of the century has increased up to 4,2 mln ha or 3,6 times and makes 81% of the cultivated area.

Impetuous growth of the irrigated lands was marked in second half of the last century when the large-scale program of cotton irrigation and development of Hungry and Djizzak Steppes in the central part began to be implemented, Karshi - in the south of the country and other so-called virgin lands in a zone of Amu-Bukhara pumping canal, Central Fergana, Surkhan-Sherabad valleys and others.

Simultaneously land development began for rice sowing in delta of Amu-Darya in Karakalpakstan. At present the irrigated lands give over 96% of gross agricultural output of Uzbekistan. About 44% of total irrigated area of the country is concentrated in Syr-Darya river basin and up to 56% in Amu-Darya river basin.

Uzbekistan has a big potential reserve of the area suitable for irrigation, but development of irrigation is limited by water resources. The limit of the available water resources, falling to the share of Uzbekistan according to interstate water apportioning of the Central Asian states, agreed in 1994, makes 72,4 km3. Their full development will demand implementation of the big regional actions on long-term regulation of Amu-Darya flow, national programs on reconstruction and modernization of water management complex as a whole and sectors of irrigation and drainage in particular, and coordinated actions of the operating organizations of the Central Asian countries on operation of water management objects of regional and national value on trans-bordering water ways.

In foreseeable prospect it would be the most real to use up to 82-87% of available water resources limit and to irrigate and develop up to 700,000 ha located in zones of advanced irrigated agriculture that will allow to obtain total area of the irrigated lands up to 4,9 mln ha, given expected abandonment of a part of the irrigated areas for non-agricultural use. In most remote prospect, it would be possible to develop a limit of water resources and implement scale works on upgrading sectors of irrigation and drainage, and development in addition up to 1,5 mln ha of the areas located on irrigated regions periphery.

All irrigation basically is controlled using surface water. Drainage flow as return water in a natural condition and in part at water users participation enter into water ways and mixing up with a natural flow form major part of available water resources. It is practically impossibly to specify these to account the areas irrigated using the flows.

In Uzbekistan the lifting system of irrigation water into irrigation systems is widely developed. In total there are about 1470 inter-farm pumping stations with some 5 thousand pumping units. Among there are the largest in the world complex pumping stations on Karshi main canal and Amu-Bukhara Canal, providing total water lift from the river Amu-Darya and into irrigation systems up to 10 km3/year.

Total length of large main and inter-farm canals makes 28,400km over the country, including 9,8 km or 34.5% is lined using concrete and reinforced concrete. Extent of inter-farm irrigation canals reaches 175,000 km, including 12,100 km in concrete lining and about 25,000 km concrete flumes.

Practically, in Uzbekistan, the irrigation is of surface type, including about 63.9 % of furrow irrigation, 31,6% strip and 4,5% of basin irrigation. Sprinkling is not used, practically. Drip irrigation is on a stage of minor pilot projects. Average efficiency of irrigation practice makes 0,66-0,68 over Uzbekistan.

As a whole operational efficiency of irrigation systems (efficiency) is 0,58-0,60 and ranges greatly over oblasts and rayons. In areas of new irrigation where the most part of irrigation network is lined, or in concrete flumes the operational efficiency of systems reaches 0.65-0.77 and on the contrary, in old irrigated area where irrigation network is in an earthen channel the similar efficiency is reduced up to 0.52-0.57. There the great importance is of the historically formed a scheme of irrigation system arrangement.

In 2000 mean annual intake, in connection with critical low water, as a whole on the country, on 1 ha of irrigated area was 10.97 thous.m3, including 7,7 thous.m3 in vegetation period, that it is less than in mean water year on 18 and 25% accordingly. In Republic of Karakalpakstan water shortage has reached 354 - 51%. Similar or close parameters on water availability in 2000 are reported in Khorezm, Bukhara and in a number of other oblasts that confirms necessity and urgency to address a problem of long-term regulation of Amu-Darya flow.

The main agricultural crops area cotton and grain, mainly wheat. In 1999 all area under crops on the irrigated area has made 3,564,500ha, including cotton (1,517,100 ha or 42,6%) and grain (1,359,100 ha or 38,1%, of these 1,100,000 ha of wheat and 164,200 ha of rice. Potato, vegetables, melon fields have occupied 226,700 ha and fodder crops 414,300 ha.

Small grains are sown on rainfed arable land. However, yearly productivity changes greatly. Economically favourable is small grains cultivation on rainfed area once in 3 to 5 years depending on region and climatic conditions. Practically, economic production of the main crops in overwhelming majority of regions of Uzbekistan would be possible only using artificial irrigation.

Frequency of crops cultivation is theoretically probable as a whole over the country at usual structure of irrigated agriculture and cropping patterns 1.38-1.42, actual frequency is from 1.03 to 1.18 on nature-climatic and socio-economic characteristics of territories.

Cost of irrigation and drainage development ranges greatly. However, cost per unit of concrete works: earthen, concrete and others construction works, equipment and other services in $US in Uzbekistan are close to similar parameters in the countries of region.

Legislation. Legal aspects of water resources management in Republic of Uzbekistan are in issuing and application of acts and the law directed on protection of water from pollution (infection), contamination, depletion, organization of rational water resources use to meet the requirements of socio-economic infrastructure by zones of planning and water management sources.

Protection objects are all surface sources (rivers, lakes, water basins, channels, collectors) and underground water. Development of the nature protection and water legislation system of the country is inseparably linked with formation of new economic relations in Uzbekistan and Law On Nature Protection of 03.12.1992, On Water and Water Use of 06.05.1993, On Depths of 23.03.1994, and a number legal regulations on water relations, respond as a whole to the international standards on preservation and use of water resources as an environmental object.

Institutional water resources management of the country is carried out by relatively advanced, organizationally formed and technically equipped national infrastructure which consists of Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources (MAWR), which central body has the block of divisions for direct water management such as Department on Water Management, State Nature Committee, State Committee on Geology and Mineral Resources with the appropriate divisions at the local level between which appropriate power are outlined according to the current legislation and regulations.

According to the Law On Water And Water Use the right of surface water resources distribution is given to MAWR agencies, and underground water to State Committee on Geology which assign limits of water intake at all levels of water distribution which are obligatory for all water users, irrespective of their departmental subordination. Additionally, MAWR is responsible for participation in the regional water management organizations of the Central Asian countries. The regional (interstate) level of cooperation and coordination on institutional water resources management is represented by the Interstate Coordination Water Management Commission (ICWMC) acting under aegis of the International Fund of Aral Sea Saving. Into structure of ICWMC there are Basin Water Management Associations Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya.

The system of planning and limitation of water distribution is represented by the following hierarchy of management: at national level - zones of planning (Republic Karakalpakstan and oblasts) and at local level (rayon, object). However, the idea of transition to structure of water resources management by the hydrographic principle, as combining branch, territorial (basin) and administrative aspects of water use gets the support.

Management and operation of water management of objects of national, inter-oblast, inter-rayon, inter-farm and in part inter-farm value being on balance of water management organizations of MAWR is financed at the expense of the governmental budget.

4.1 Plant nutrient use and nutrient balance

Basic macro-nutritious vegetative products in Republic of Uzbekistan are wheat, leguminous, rice, potato, vegetables, melons and gourds, fruit and grapes. Wheat and rice are used in food only in the processed form: wheat as flour products and groats, rice in groats after clearing and processing. Leguminous are used in food after their primary clearing. Basically it is pea, mash, kidney bean. The others macro-nutritious vegetative products: potato, vegetables, melons and gourds, fruit and grapes are used both in a fresh form, and in processed tinned (vegetables and fruit), and in a dried form (dried fruit, dried grapes and melon etc.).

In connection with realization of the program of grain security of the country practically at a level of 2000 self-provision of the population with food grain and processed products was achieved. Development of farmer and dekhkan farms has allowed to stop previously existing traditional import supply of food potato.

Provision with vegetables, melons is traditionally carried out by fruit and grapes at the expense of own production.

The basic tendency in use of vegetative products is their more extensive industrial processing and delivery in a home market in a form of semi-finished products ready for use.

Designing in a sphere of vegetative products consumption is directed on reduction of delivery non-conventional macro-nutritious vegetative products at the expense of development of manufactures replacing these.

4.2 Fertilizer production and costs

The main fertilizers made in Republics of Uzbekistan are nitric, phosphorus and complex fertilizers. Last years in the country the program on potash fertilizers manufacturing is implemented.

However, as a whole, potash fertilizers demand is limited in comparison with demand in nitric and phosphorus fertilizers. Capacities available in the country allow completely to meet requirements of agriculture in these kinds of fertilizers.

At present the state has stopped the subsidizing of mineral fertilizers production, due to realization of market reforms in the industry.

Transition to market forms of managing has predetermined growth of specific fertilizer costs in expenses for agricultural production: in grain production to 21,8 %, vegetables to 9,9%, fruits - 4,2 %, other crops up to 8-12%.

Physical use of mineral fertilizers is accordingly reduced, especially in farmer and dekhkan farms and due to replacement with local organic fertilizers.

Increase of macro-nutritious vegetative products quality and content of nitrates is marked. Expenses (budgets) of farmers for 1 ton of the basic types of vegetative products for 01.01.2000 on RUz as a whole are characterized by the following parameters (Table 4.2.1):

[Table 4.2.1: Expenses (budgets) of farmers for 1 ton of the basic types of vegetative products for 01.01.2000 on RUz]

5.0 Overview

5.1 Land-related constraints to sustainable agriculture

[Link 5.1.1 : LADA Case study Uzbekistan with emphasis on salinization: Report and maps] [new]

Water mismanagement and unsustainable land use cause development of soil degradation and deterioration in its quality. Most part of the irrigated area is subject to several types of degradation which influence causes decrease of agricultural production approximately up to 30-42 % per year.

The most extensive major category of problem soils is the human-induced (secondary) salinisation of the old and new irrigated areas. It occurs elsewhere within Uzbekistan with considerable difference in genesis of salinity. For example, the soil salinity in the new irrigated area of Hunger and Djizzak steppes, and Karshi steppe is mostly connected with the residual-natural salinisation. Occurrence of the secondary salinisation on irrigated area in Uzbekistan is shown in Table 5.1.1.

[Table 5.1.1: Occurrence of the Secondary Salinisation on Irrigated Area in Uzbekistan,1999

Secondary salinisation of soils is occurred mostly in Karakalpakstan, Syrdarya, Khorezm and Navoi, as well as in Ferghana, Kashkadarya and Bukhara Oblasts.

The main causes of the secondary salinisation in the irrigated area are water mismanagement and poor drainage, and water quality deterioration. Infrastructure of the irrigation and drainage is operated more than 30 years without modernization and rehabilitation. Because of the operational difficulties, many existing drainage systems are malfunctioning or losing its carrying capacity, and approximately 50% of the vertical drainage is not operated at all. The extreme water overuse for irrigation on a background of poor drainage brings about the rise of ground water table and underflooding.

[Table 5.1.2: Crop Yield and Meliorative Conditions of Irrigated Area in relation to Density of the Collector Drainage System, 1999]

Intensive rise of ground water level in irrigated area is a consequence of high seepage losses from canals and irrigation fields (low efficiency of irrigating systems and water application) and inadequacy (or absence) of drainage and disposing systems. Continuous domination of cotton monoculture and increase of the rice area, with high inputs of irrigating water, also facilitated strengthening of soil hydromorphism. Irrigation by flooding practiced leads to waterlogging of soils and to an accumulation of salt in the soils. Ground water lies far above the soil depth of 2m, which leads to the transport of water-soluble salts into the root zone of the plants and to the soil surface via evaporation and capillary effects. This problem soils is widely spread in zones of difficult natural outflow (Karakalpakstan, Khorezm, Bukhara, Ferghana and Syrdarya Oblast). Total area with a critical level of underground water is shown in Table 5.1.4.

According data of the Soil Science Institute about 77.2% of irrigated area of Khorezm region has ground water level from 0-1.0 to 1-2.0 m. Land area with mineralization 5-10g/l and 10-15 g/l composes accordingly 17,3% and 10,3% of total irrigated area. In Djizak region its various ranch of 1.0-2.2 m and average depth according 1.29-2.03m. Ground water mineralization is chloride-sulphate and sulphate from 2.2 to 17.8 g/l [Soil Institute, 2001].

Existing practices of irrigation and leaching does not provide an adequate desalination of irrigated salt affected soils and gypsiferous soils in Hunger and Djizzak steppes. Highly saline lands are abandoned and turn into contaminated area. Low level of water probability complicates to cover water requirements for leaching and an irrigation of agricultural crops. Some important problems are used for leaching in parts of mid and lower stream of the rivers are return flows with a poor quality[ MMTU,1997].

The second most complex category of problem soils is gypsiferous soils (Table 6.7). It occupies more than 3124.1 thousand ha, or about 7% of gross area. These soils are found throughout the Central and Southeast part of Uzbekistan. The most extensive gypsiferous soils groupings are in the Kashkadarya, Djizzak, Samarkand and Syrdarya Oblasts. Irrigation of these soils has started in 1970. At present gypsiferous soils occupy 377.2 thousand ha, or about 6,4% of irrigated area in Uzbekistan.

At present content of the humus in the soil, which is basis of its fertility, has decreased by 30-40%. Soils with the very low humus content (0.4 to 1%) occupy about 40% of total irrigated area, and low productivity soils cover 0.5 million hectares. Continuation of these processes lead to further loss of organic matter and, thus, soil fertility. It is serious threat for sustainable development of irrigated agriculture of Uzbekistan.

The main causes of fertility degradation are the monoculture of cotton that caused loss of humus, exhaustion of the soil and its physical and chemical qualities. Cotton monoculture enquired a large-scale application of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides. Huge chemical doses (from 20 to 90 kg of pesticides and 300-500 kg of mineral fertilizers per one hectare) and the highly intensive agricultural practices resulted in soil fertility loss. This process can be stopped and reversed only if sustainable cropping systems are introduced based on the conservation or enhancement of soil organic matter [ZEF, 2001].

Next category of soil degradation is pollution of soils. The soil characteristics conditions (slightly alkaline reaction of soils, irrigated agriculture) and arid climate in Uzbekistan promote decomposition and migration of chlorine-organic pesticides. Though since 1983 DDT residuals are prohibited, the exceeding of its maximum admitted concentration are observed more than in a half of soil samples. However, soil pollution due to total DDT is practically at the same level, but it exceeds the maximum admitted concentration 2-5 times. [Environment, 2001].

Since 1991 pesticide use in Uzbekistan declined to 68% of the initial level: for 84 200 tons in 1989 to 57 700 tons in 1993, but soil contamination continues to be kept. The Ferghana Oblast is one that is most polluted with pesticides. Here the level of pollution (total of DDT) comprises 6.2 of MPC. The excess of MPC is noted in 100% of samples. 10 MPC excess is marked in 13,3% of selected samples. The relatively high level of pollution is kept in Andijan and in the Khorezm Oblast and makes up 5.5 and 4.6 of MPC, accordingly. In Syr-Darya, Surkhandarya, Kashkadarya and Tashkent Oblasts, the level of pollution with the total DDT is within 2-3 MPC limits. In other areas pollution with the total DDT is at the MPC and below level. The soils pollution with pesticides makes up 54% of the investigated area [IFAS, 2001].

Investigation of soil pollution with the toxicants of industrial production carried out in 1996 in the areas adjacent to the towns of Nukus, Samarkand and Urgench showed that average content of metals (lead, cadmium, manganese) in mobility modes does not exceed or insignificantly exceeds the background concentrations and does not exceed copper, zinc and nickel MPC in mobile mode. The high content of heavy metals is marked in soils around the industrial developed cities (Tashkent, Almalyk, Chirchik, etc). Soil pollution from arsenic and zinc with excess of the acceptable standards 10 and 6 times respectively was reported in Samarkand region. [Environment, 2001].

Wind erosion is observed on the area over 2,0 million ha of the irrigated land. Its development is promoted greatly by natural factors. Nature of economic development and land use strengthen this development. The greatest damage causes ploughing up and processing of slopes without observance of antierosion agrotechnical methods, and over-pasturing of the cattle. Harmful winds are characteristic for the western and central part of Ferghana valley, southeast part of Hungry steppe, Surkhan-Sherabad valley, Karshi steppe and Bukhara oasis. Sowing area in Surkhandarya frequently suffers from a hot wind 'garmsil' which is accompanied by dusty storms.

Water erosion impacts on more than 4 mln ha or about 20% non-irrigated areas, and in separate oblasts, Surkhandarya, Samarkand, Kashkadarya on 50 to 60%. Erosion is wide spread on foothill slopes and adyrs. Especially dangerous of the erosion is developed under steep slopes with poor vegetative cover and intensive stock farming.

Irrigation erosion is observed on irrigated area and it is occurred on 262,1 thousand ha. It is the consequence of wrong furrow irrigation or by flooding on poor land leveling. It arises at application using great rates, and also on considerable slopes when speed of water exceeds speed of soil absorption.

Besides the specified types of erosion in separate territories the combination of water and wind erosion is observed. The area of the land subject to mixed erosion makes about 1 400 000 ha. Basically these are Kashkadarya and Surkhandarya Oblasts.

Mudflows are formed as a result of snow melting in the mountains, intensive rainfalls which fall in treeless and heavy eroded basins where the significant amount of melkozem and debris material have been accumulated. The area subject to influence of mudflows and avalanches makes 4700 thousand ha (Ferghana valley, Tashkent, Syrdarya, Kashkadarya and Surkhandarya Oblasts).

Ravines formation. On average estimates the total area occupied by ravines makes about 35 thousand ha. Distribution of Wind and Water Erosion in Uzbekistan is shown in Table 5.1.6.

The drying of the Aral Sea has created so-called desert «Aralkum». This solid salt marsh emits tremendous masses of salt and finely dispersed dust that is transported by a powerful air running from west to east [UNEP, 2000]. The average yearly fallout of salt in the Aral Sea basin is estimated between 150 and 230 million tons. These aerosols comprise sulphate, chlorides and even heavy metals. Typical Aral dust has been found in various parts of the globe, thousands of kilometers away from Central Asia [UNEP, 2000].

5.2 Water-related constraints to sustainable agriculture

Disappearance of the Aral Sea, formerly the fourth greatest lake on the Earth, is known to the world as a place of social and ecological disaster. Past and present human activity has influenced the river flow entering into the lake and therefore the size of the Aral Sea (ASBP).

The last 200 years, however, the lake level has been quite stable, until the 60s when the large-scale development of cotton production through irrigated agriculture was started in Central Asia.

From 1960 to 1990, the irrigated area in Central Asia increased from 4.5 million ha to 7 million hectares. The population in the region rose from 14 million to 50 million. Water requirements for the economy have increased from 60 to 120 km3/year, of which 90% for irrigation. Water was offtaken mostly from the two rivers feeding the Aral Sea, and that was to such an extent that by the mid-80s only a small part of their natural flow reached the Aral Sea. The excessive use of water for irrigation lead to the gradual drying up of the Aral Sea and to desertification of the river deltas. Water changed from brackish (10g salt/l) to hyper-saline (40g salt/l), making unsuitable habitat for the most of endemic species.

Average water balance of the Aral Sea from 1912 to 1990 in km3/year is shown in Table 5.2.1. Change of water and salt diversion into the Aral Sea from 1960 is shown in Table 5.5.2.

Last 20 years, the lake water level dropped gradually by 17 meters. During these years there were catastrophic socio-economic consequences for the people living in the immediate vicinity of the sea and delta of two rivers.

These lead to a drastic decline in employment possibilities in the vicinity of the lake causing an exodus of the active population and dramatic decline in the health situation of those remained. In whole the Aral Sea disappears due to climatic reasons, but the recent reduction of the Aral Sea is the consequence of human activities.

5.3 Plant Nutrition-related constraints to sustainable agriculture

5.4 Other constraints to sustainable agriculture

6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation

6.1 Land-related response indicators

6.2 Water-related response indicators

6.3 Plant Nutrition-related response indicators

6.4 Other response indicators

The greatest problem of the forthcoming period concerning the land resources use and production of phytogenic food-stuff in Uzbekistan is water resources availability for socio-economic infrastructure, including irrigated agriculture at national and local levels.

The issue solving strategy should have three equal directions specifying position and level of political, institutional, technological, socio-economic and environmental aspects of each direction:

Strategy priorities to solve the problems should be National Actions Program on mid-term and long-term period approved by the Government and to be obligatory for implementation by the national water management organizations.

8.1 References

8.2 Related internet links

Country in general

Uzbek Profile - UCLA Language Materials Project
http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/profiles/profu02.htm
annotation: "Brief introduction on country facts, focusing on the languages." [editor's note, 18april2002]

Uzbekistan / History and Resources
http://wrc.lingnet.org/uzbekhis.htm
annotation: "Description on the history. Further link to Resource sites." [editor's note, 18april2002]

Land and Water resources, Hotspots, Brightspots

Other related sites on environment

Uzbekistan

1. Country overview