 Samoa |
| Samoa |
|
This report was prepared by last updated: 25 February 2002 |
Overview (Geography, Socio-economy, Climate)
Land resources
Water resources (AQUASTAT) 
Plant nutrient resources
Hot spots
Bright spots
Challenges and viewpoints
References / Related internet links |
1. Country overview 1.1 Geography and administrative units 1.3 Climate 1. > top |
The Independent State of Samoa or Samoa was previously known as Western Samoa until 1997. It lies in the South Pacific Ocean between 13o 35' S and 172o 20' W. Its closest neighbour to the south-east is American Samoa and to the west is Wallis and Fotuna. Samoa consists of two large islands; Upolu and Savai'i and several smaller islands with a total land area of approximately 2,935 km2. The capital of Samoa is Apia and there are 11 administrative divisions; A'ana, Aiga-I-le-Tai, Atua, Fa'asaleleaga, Gaga'emauga, Gagaifomauga, Palauli, Satupa'itea, Tuamasaga, Va'a-o-Fonoti, and Vaisigano.
[Link to Outline Map II] [Map 1.1.1: Administrative Map] 1.1 > 1. Population The population in July 2000 was estimated to be around 179,500 with a negative growth rate of just above 0.2 percent. [Chart 1.2.1: Population Growth of Samoa, 1900-2000]
Economy The mainstay of the Samoan economy is agriculture and fisheries, both for subsistence and export earnings. In addition the economy of Samoa has also been heavily dependent on development aid, private family remittances from overseas countries like New Zealand and United States. Tourism is an expanding sector and more than 70,000 tourists visited the islands in 1996. Role of Agriculture in Economy Agriculture plays an important role in the economy of Samoa with at least two-thirds of households reliant on a mixture of subsistence and cash income. Even those employed in the wages and salary sector often supplement their incomes with agricultural production. The agricultural sub-sector was also responsible for just under 30 percent of Samoa’s export revenue in 1999. The agricultural sector of the economy accounts for almost 40 percent of GDP. Major Food and Cash Crops Agriculture in Samoa is largely dependent on a limited range of crops for its own subsistence needs and for export. Taro, coconut products and cocoa have dominated exports for some considerable time, although other primary products such as timber and beef have also been developed. Recently the export of pelagic fish (mostly albacore and tuna) from long-line fishing have exceeded earnings when compared with the earnings from traditional export crops/products like taro, coconut products and cocoa. [Table 1.2.1: Area of Temporary Crops] [Table 1.2.2: Area of Permanent Crops] [Table 1.2.3: Quantity and
Value of Leading Export Crops, 1982-1990]
1.2 > 1. Samoa's climate is tropical. Although it is in the southern hemisphere, because of it's proximity to the equator there is no major seasonal difference such as the summer and winter that occurs in more temperate regions. There is, however, a distinct rainy and a dry season and a slight difference in temperature associated with these. The rainy season in Samoa is centered around January and the dry season around July and August. Because the interior of the island is mountainous there is also a considerable difference between the rainfall on the coast and that in the jungle further inland. Average annual rainfall varies from 5,000 to 7,000 mm on the southern windward side and 2,500 to 3,000 mm on the leeward side. [Map 1.3.1: Distribution of Mean Annual Rainfall - Samoa]
There is very little seasonal difference in the temperature. Temperatures seldom rise above 29º C or fall below 24º C. During the period May - November the weather is slightly cooler because of the presence of the south-east trade winds. It is generally humid in Samoa with the humidity being at its greatest in the rainy season, about 79%, and at about 73% in the dry season. [Chart 1.3.1 : Monthly Average Rainfall in Samoa] [Chart 1.3.2: Monthly Average Number of Days with No Rain in Samoa] [Chart 1.3.3: Mean Monthly Temperature in Apia, 1970-1990] [Map 1.3.2: Distribution of Earthquake Epicentres in Samoa]
1.3 > 1. |
2. Land resources 2.1 Physiography 2.2 Soils 2.4 Natural hazards 2.5 Land cover 2.6 Land use 2.7 Environmental impact of land uses 2. > top |
|
The landscape of Samoa is relatively simple. The main mass of each island is wholly volcanic in origin and consists of basalt derived frm the sub-crustal magmatic material normal to the Pacific basin. Samoa has a narrow coastal plain with volcanic, rocky, rugged mountains in interior. In most areas there is an almost flat to gentle undulating (1-2º) coastal plain, which passes gradually into a region of of undulating and gently rolling slopes (2-5º), these in turn merging with the rolling and more strongly sloping (5-15º) foothills, which continue upwards until an upalnd or plateau level is reached.
[Map 2.1.1: Land Slope - Samoa] 2.1 > 2. Soil fertility is the ability of a soil to supply the required type and amount of nutrients necessary for the optium growth of a particualr crop or vegetation system, when all other factors are favourable (Jones, et. al., 1990). In a broader sense soil fertility also refers to to the ability of a soil to store an optimal amount of water, provide optium aeration, provide adequate temperature and rooting depth (Cable and Tuivavalagi, 2001). The amount of water available to plants depends mainly on rainfall and the soil moisture retention capacity. Soil Taxonomy recognises six soil moisture regimes (SMR's) but only the wettest three (aquic, udic and perudic) are common in Samoa. Soils of Samoa are generally extremely porous and excessively drained such that , in spite of the high annual rainfall, crops maystill still suffer from water shortage if there is no rain for a week (Asghar et. al., 1988). Soil temperature is very important to agriculture since it affects gwermination, respiration and nutirent uptake by crops. Soil Taxonomy recognises 10 soil temperature regimes (STR's), however, only only three STR's occur in Samoa: isomesic, isothermic, and isohyperthermic. [Table 2.2.1: Soil Temperature Regimes of Samoa] The soils of Samoa have been classes as laterites or more recently known as latosols, and have been described as uncommon in that they contain 7.8 -12.6% titanium oxide (Hamilton and Grange, 1938). This classification has been based on the eividence that soil formation involved loss of silica, alkalis, and alkaline earths with a resulting increase in in proportion of highly weathered oxides of iron , aluminium and primary minerals such as magnetite. Latosols have no essential horizons of accumulation in which substances have been concentrated by addition and there may be horizons of accumulation of iron oxide, alumina or titania due to removal of silica from the soil system. The most extensive soil order in Samoa is that derived from recent volcanic ash called Andisols. Most of them are in uplands under isothermic temperature regimes. Inceptisols, together with Oxisols are also found in great areas in Samoa. Significant areas of Mollisols, and Entisols are also cultivated. Andisols, formed from young volcanic ash have been identified in Upolu and Savai'i (Morrison et. al., 1989). Soils found in Samoa are of low fertility. Most Samoan soils have a pH between 5.5 and 7.5. The basic or alkaline soils with pH above 7.5 include the coral sands along the coast (Cable and Tuivavalagi, 2001). In the acidic soils of Samoa having pH of below 5.5, some nutrients become deficient. This is especially true for phosphorus and calcium. In Samoan acidic soils, toxicity of iron and manganese is a common problem.
[Map 2.2.1: Geological Features - Samoa]
2.2 > 2. The component parts of a soil pattern are usually mapped as soil series, types and, phrases. Soil patterns in Samoa has been mapped, as much as possible, on the basis of soil types. Each different kind of soil of large enough area to show on the soil map, was given an appropriate local name. There are 90 named soil mapped on the islands of Samoa, and 24 of these are found only on moderately steep to very steep slopes.
2.3 > 2. The South Pacific is one of the most natural disaster prone regions of the world, with tropical cyclones, earthquakes, tsunamis, storm surge, inundation, volcanism, landslides and human-induced hazards being common throughout the Pacific. Samoa is no exception. From 1831 to 1990, 79 cyclones have affected Samoa. The most recent cyclones, Cyclone Ofa and Val in 1990 and 1991 respectively, led to the loss of lives, homes and reclaimed land. The monetary value of the damages was set in millions of dollars. The linear island chain of Samoa is situated directly north-east of the Tonga-Kermadec trench which is the main source of seismicity directly affecting Samoa. In April 1995 there was a large earthquake of magnitude 8.1 in the trench that caused moderate ground shaking in the capital city, Apia. The rate of development of Apia, like other major South Pacific centres, is essentially driving a large number of the people into vulnerable urban living conditions. Similar magnitude earthquakes occurring today could pose a series threat to the population, environment and economy of Samoa, especially in urban areas such as Apia.
2.4 > 2. According to the 1989 Agricultural
Census, 77 percent of of the total land area of land holdings is under
some form of cultivation. The remainig 23 percent comprises
land under fallow (3 percent), bush (3 percent) or under non-agricultural
use (17 percent). 2.5 > 2. Forests and woodlands occupt almost
47% of the total land area. For agricultural production about
19% of the total land is arable and a further 24% of the total land
area is under permanent crops. Land use is dominated by tree crops, notably coconuts, cocoa and bananas. A total of 30 percent of the total land area is under tree crops and another 34 percent is under mixed "tree and other crops". Non-tree crops account for 13 percent of the total acreage. [Map 2.6.1: Land Classes - Upolu, Samoa] [Map 2.6.2: Land Classes - Savai'i, Samoa] [Table 2.6.3: Land Use Types by Major Crops]
2.6 > 2.
As in other South Pacific Island countries Samoa also has problems with unsustainable agricultural practices. These practices have contributed to deforestation, changes in cropping pattern, with consequent losses of biodiversity across the landscape and loss of soil fertility. Of particular concern currently is the clearing of forest lands for farming which recently has been responsible for increasing soil erosion. 2.7 > 2.
|
3. Water Resources 3. > top |
|
Fresh water is a fundamental resource for small island nations. Most development plans are pivotal on the availability of fresh water. Clean water enhances the health and productivity of the work force and has particular implications for the children and the future generations. All of the Samoan population have access to piped water. However, there is high rate of water loss through leakage because of weak infrastructure and wastage as a result of poor conservation measures. The volcanic origin of Samoa has resulted in terrains that have abundant streams and waterfalls. Despite this, the western part of Upolu and the larger parts of Savai'i lack any surface water because of the highly permeable nature of the Mulifanua volcanic rocks. Thus, groundwater and rainwater catchments are the common sources of water in these areas.
3.1 > 3.
Irrigation for agricultural production is hardly existent and land is very well drained in most cases.
3.1 > 3.
|
4. Plant nutrient resources 4.1 Plant nutrient use and resource 4. > top |
4.1 Plant nutrient use and resource Fertilizer use in Samoa, in general, is quite low. The 1989 Agricultural Census enumerated 14,734 agricultural holdings in the household sector in Samoa and found that only 14% of them were using inorganic fertilizers (GOS, 2000). This amounts to approximately 500 to 600 tonnes per annum (Dudal and Roy, 1995). The import of manufactured fertilizers by Samoa is one of the lowest in the Pacific island countries. Several reasons have been attributed to this low use of fertilizers in Samoa. Some of these are the high cost of fertilizers, lack of knowledge on fertilizer usage and the nature of cropping patterns and the promotion of organic farming. Use of compost is now becoming common
and close to 15 percent of the total agricultural holdings in Samoa
use compost for to supply plant nutrients (Fairbairn, 1993). 4.1 > 4. |
5. Hot spots 5.0 Overview: constraints to sustainable agriculture 5.3 Plant nutrition-related constraints 5. > top |
|
Samoa has been aware of its small size, scattered nature, remoteness from major centres of production and consumption, ecological and economic vulnerability. Even with this awareness there are several resource and environmental issues affecting sustainable development in Samoa. These include an array of issues related to land use, water use, use of fertilizers and climatic and sea-level variability, environmental degradation and pollution to resource management. More specific challenges to sustainable development include coastal erosion, water quality, water availability and natural hazards. Sustainable management of resources such as aggregate and renewable energy are other issues in Samoa’s quest for development.
5.0 > 5.
5.1 Land-related constraints to sustainable agriculture Population increase leads to intensified land use and agricultural land availability per head of population and the ratio of agricultural land to agricultural population in Samoa is close to 7.60 ha. While this area of agricultural land per head is presently sufficiently, land use policies would need to be formulated now to prevent any decline in the ratio of agricultural land available per head. Non-availability of land because of customary land tenure disputes and difficulties has been a major constraint for agricultural development. This non-availability of agricultural land has been further aggravated by conflict between farming, residential use and infrastructure development especially in the limited flat coastal areas where demands for land use is almost always high. Declinig soil fertility is another constraint to sustainable agricultural development. However use of fertilizers is very limited and at times not practical. The inadequacy of recommending fertilizers to village farmers without secure land ownership rights continues to be a problem. There is always a danger of farmers using fertilizers without giving attention to other soil needs. For example when fertilizer is used in a soil deficient in humus or organic matter, plants will be unalbve to make full use of the added plant nutirents. 5.1 > 5.
The availability and quality of water in Samoa is directly related to land-use patterns and resource utilization. Indiscriminate logging of forests has led to adverse effects on water flows which has resulted in more frequent floods and droughts during wet and dry seasons respectively. The availability of water resources is directly linked to the land-use patterns and utilization of land resources. Insufficient watershed management and logging of forests has led to uncontrolled water flow, and thus to the destruction of land areas through more frequent floods and droughts during wet and dry seasons, respectively. 5.2 > 5. 5.3 Plant nutrition-related constraints to sustainable agriculture Depletion of nutrients from overuse of available agricultural land has been a major problem. This is especially true when farming land are not given adequate fallow period, which is a normal practice in subsistence agriculture, to regenerate its natural fertility. This problem is compounded with extremely little or no fertilizer use. Increase soil erosion of sloping lands where appropriate farming practices are not being followed.
5.3 > 5. 5.4 Other constraints to sustainable agriculture Samoan agricultural sector is dominated by small-scale semi-subsistence farm households. Generally there are four broad categories of agricultural production. These are root crops, plantation crops, livestock, and fruit and vegetables production. However, these crops in recent times have come under threat from pests and diseases. One of the worst agricultural disasters to occur in Samoa was "Taro Leaf Blight". Taro, an important local and export crop was virtually wiped out by a fungal disease. Efforts have successfully continued to revive the crop. Timber logging was an important activity in recent decades, especially on the island of Savaii. Timber export began in 1972 and peak production was reached in late 1970's and early 1980's for local and export markets. Since then timber export has been declining. The remaining forest cover is estimated to be 37 percent (105,602 ha) of Samoa's total land area. Because deforestation was a serious threat, export of logs was banned in early 1990s. Even though there is reforestation programme by the Forestry Division of MAFFM accounting for an average 90 ha annually from 1998 to 2000, the forest resource has been exploited to the extent that it has now been estimated that the remaining merchantable forest will be deleted within ten years. 5.4 > 5.
|
6. Bright spots 6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation 6.1 Land-related response indicators 6.2 Water-related response indicators 6.3 Plant nutrition-related response indicators 6. > top |
6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation Systems for sustainable management of natural resources need to be developed to involve and make maximum use of the traditional resource management techniques and control systems which exist in Samoa. However, traditional systems may not easily facilitate the taking of "hard" decisions, for example, the foregoing of immediate income to produce a much higher return for the next generation. Opportunities must be provided for local or village communities to develop and acquire knowledge and appreciation of the benefits of conserving and managing resources and to evaluate for themselves the relative costs and benefits of different uses and different levels and time frames of use. 6.0 > 6.
Customary land belonging to traditional land holding units is protected by both legislation and customary law. Such land can not be sold although it can be leased with consent of the owners. Recent trend of increased individualism of customary land may help give households a greater sense of security over land and this may stimulate agricultural production (O'Meara, 1990). 6.1 > 6. 6.2 Water-related response indicators Recently much emphasis has been placed on sustainable use of water resources and this aspect has been greatly facilitated by agencies likje FAO and UNDP. A UNDP/FAO project looked at the interrelationship between the management of upstream and downstream areas within a given watershed. This relationship has been demonstrated through the implementation of soil conservation and watershed management measures, such as conservation plantation, agroforestry practices, plantation of forest and fruit trees by farmers, conservation farming systems, and extension and education programmes for different target groups. The objective is to facilitate the conservation of flora and fauna and improve the socio-economic condition of watershed dwellers. 6.2 > 6. 6.3 Plant Nutrition-related response indicators Work has also been continuing in Samoa on an integrated plant nutrition approach to
optimise effective and efficient use of various sources while protecting the environment.
This includes agro-forestry technologies using legume trees in fallow and inter-cropped
with root crops. A number of research programmes initiated by European Community through
Pacific Regional Agricultural Programme and Pacific Land are now bearing fruits. These
approaches provide effective nutrient recycling, moisture conservation, reduced weed
competition and growth, nutrient pumping by the tree roots and production of nitrogen that
is added to the soil in leaf litter. 6.3 > 6.
|
7. Challenges and viewpoints |
The combined effect of monetisation of Samoan economy is concentrated in urban areas and migration by Samoans, mainly to USA and New Zealand are resulting in a growing dependence on remittances with a corresponding fall in rural productivity. This situation accounts frequently for high levels of rural under-employment and the predominance of subsistence farming as a significant and efficient component of economic activity. A growing dependence on cash incomes makes new sources of income, including off-farm employment, of increasing importance. Improving efficiency and effectiveness of agriculture, where the majority of the population engages in small-scale agriculture and subsistence activities, while maintaining and promoting sustainable approaches across all sectors, will be a major challenge. This challenge will require agricultural technologies, farming systems and techniques to increase crops yields through sustainable land use methods. At the same time, the high quality standards and values of increasingly sophisticated internal and external markets must be met.
7. > top
|
|
8. References and related internet links 8.1 References 8. > top |
|
Asghar, M., Davidson, T. J., and Morrison, R. J. Soil Taxonomy and Fertility in the South Pacific. Procs. XVth International Forum on Soil Taxonomy and Agrotechnology Transfer. Institute for Research, Extension and Training in Agriculture, Apia, Samoa, 7-18 July 1986. Cable, W.J. and Tuivavalagi, N.S. An Introduction to the Soils of Samoa and their Sustainable Management. SAPA Publication 2001/1, FAO. 2001. Dudal, R. and Roy, R.N. Integrated Plant Nutrition Systems. Report of an Expert Consultation, Rome, Italy, 13-15 Dec. 1993. Plant Nutrition Management Service, FAO Land and Water Development Division. 1995 Fairbairn, T. I. J. Western Samoa's Census of Agriculture: Major Features and Implications for Development. University of the New South Wales Printing Section. 1993. GOS (Government of Samoa, 2000). Census of Agriculture Report. Ministry of Statistics, and Ministry of Agriculture, Forest, Fisheries and Meteorology. Apia, Samoa. 190 pp. 1999. Hamilton, W. M. and Grange, L. I. The Soils and Agriculture of Western Samoa. N.Z. Dep. sci. industr. Res Bull. 61. 1938. Jones, G., Robertson, A., Forbes, J., and Hollier, G. (eds.). Collins Dictionary of Environmental Sciences. Harper Collins, UK, 1990. Morrison, R.J., Naidu, R., Singh, U. and Leslie, D.M. 'Andisols and related soils in the south Pacific Islands',In Shoji, S. and Kinloch, D. Propertie, Classification and Utilisation of Andisols and Paddy Soils, (Soil Science Society of Japan and Soil Management Support Services USDA), Tohuku University, Sendai, Japan. 1989. O'Meara, J. T. Samoan Planters: Tradition and Economic Development in polynesia. Fort Worth. Holt, Rinehart and winston, Inc. 1990. Ward, R. G. and Ashcroft, P. Samoa: Mapping the Diversity. Bluebird Printery, Fiji. 1998. Wright, A. C. S. Soils and Use Use of Western Samoa. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Soil Bureau, Bulletin 22. Government Printer, Wellington, New Zealand. 1963.
8.1 > 8.
Country in General http://www.library.uu.nl/wesp/populstat/Oceania/wsamoag.htm http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ws.html 8.2 > 8. |
| about | acknowledgments | disclaimer | copyright | last updated: 25 February 2002 |