Gateway to Land and Water Information: Sri Lanka national report

This report was compiled by
name of collaborator, Research Officer
Natural Resources Management Center

1. Country overview

1.1 Geography and administrative units

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1.1 Geography and administrative units

Sri Lanka is situated between 6°– 10° North latitude and from nearly 80°– 82° east longitude
65525 sq. km

Administrative units (regions, countries, capital cities, provinces, other administrative units and areas). Include the name and the area of the different administrative units in the country.

1.2 Socio-economic features

• Population (population statistics: size, density, %rural and urban population, population growth rate, major employment sectors, per capita income and per capita arable land).
• Economy (brief description of the main economic sectors of the country).
• The role of agriculture in the country's economy (trends in the role of agriculture in the economy, contribution to GDP and employment, history and institutional arrangements of the agricultural sector, information on infrastructure, education, health, agriculture, transport and communication).
• Major food crops and cash crops and trends in production
• Food security (major food source, present and future food demand, methods to achieve this _ cropping intensity, crop diversification)
• Crop diversification (crop diversification programmes, results)

1.3 Climate

The spatial distribution of mean annual rainfall over the island varies between 750 mm to 5500 mm within the country. Approximately, 2/3rd of land area of the country receive less than 2000 mm per annum. However, this amount is not well distributed over the year. Temporal rainfall variation shows bimodal distribution pattern in many parts of the country.

The convectional convergence period: (March to mid April): This period is characterized by the bright clear mornings, formation of clouds by the convectional activity in the early afternoon and thunderstorms in the late afternoon.

The pre-monsoonal period (mid April to late May): Characterized by transitional weather pattern. During this period convectional activity is reduced and monsoon rains begin.

The southwest monsoon period (late May to late September): This season begins the largest amount of rainfall to the southwestern lowlands and the windward side of the central highlands.

The convectional cyclonic period (late September to late November): Begin to weaken the monsoons and can include cyclones.

The northeast monsoons (November to February): This period begins rainfall to the large extents of the lowland located in the eastern, northern and southern parts of the central highlands.

Due to this seasonality of rainfall, two dry periods can be clearly identified in many parts of the country. The length of the dry periods varies over the country. Generally shorter dry spell continues from mid January to mid March. The longer dry period extends from June to September. The two rainy periods are related to the two monsoons namely northeast and southwest. The two seasons are locally called "Maha" season and "Yala" season respectively. The Maha season extend from October to February and Yala season from March to September. Even if the total annual rainfall of Sri Lanka is comparatively high, year-to-year variation make rainfall very unreliable.

The solar radiation in the country varies between 275 - 400 cal/cm2/day during different months in different stations. The highest solar radiation is experienced in February and March and the lowest is in November and December.

The mean monthly temperature of the island differs slightly depending on the seasonal movement of the sun with some modifying influence caused by rainfall. In the lowlands (below 300-m msl) the mean annual temperature is 270C with mean daily range of 60 c. Temperature changes with the changing elevation in the central highlands. Generally temperature decreases by about 6 degrees per each rise of 1000 m from mean sea level. The temperature regime in Sri Lanka is favorable for plant growth in most parts of the country. Diurnal range of temperature is relatively small in the country.

Relative humidity closely follows rainfall pattern of the region with diurnal differences caused by the warming effect of the sun during daytime and cooling effect of the night. RH values in the nights remain about 10% higher than the daytime RH. It remains above 70% through out the year in all parts of the country. Generally dry months record low values. The high RH is conducive for growth of plant pathogens.

High wind speed is damaging to some crops. Data show that wind speed varies over the year and over the country. May, June, July and August are windy months in most of the dry districts. During these months wind speed of over 20 km/hr is not uncommon.

2. Land resources

2.1 Physiography

2.2 Soils

2.3 Agroecological systems

2.4 Wetlands, mangroves and inland valley bottoms

2.5 Inundation Land Types

2.6 Natural hazards

2.7 Land cover

2.8 Land use

2.9 Land use change

2.10 Land Productivity

2.11 Environmental Impact of land uses

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2.1 Physiography

Based on elevation and nature of the terrain five geomorphic regions can be identified: the coastal fringe, the central highlands, the south-west country, the east and southeast, and the north central lowlands.
The central massif from which headwaters of all Sri Lanka's major rivers originates , is a compact physiographic unit bounded on the south by a high mountain, the Worlds End. The topography of the southwest ; the other part of Sri Lanka's Wet Zone is characterized by long parallel ridges cut by the rivers beginning in the hill country. The eastern and south eastern lowlands are characterized by rolling hills, undulating plains and isolated residual hills. The coastal fringe has important fisheries and the region contains large parks and wildlife refuges that are home for wild elephants. The north central lowlands are somewhat similar to those in the east. In this region, the country's hydraulic civilization flourished.

2.2 Soils

The soils of Sri Lanka have been classified at great group level for the whole country and series level for some parts. The mapping has been done mainly at great group level. Fourteen great soil groups have been described (Moorman and Panabokke, 1961). Generalized soil map of Sri Lanka is given in [map2.2.1]. Extents of major great groups of the country are given in [table 2.2.1].

The chemical and physical properties of soil have been discussed by De Alwis and Panabokke (1972). The physical properties (except for water holding properties) of major soil groups such as Reddish Brown Earths, Red Yellow Podzolic soils, Red and Yellow Latasols, Reddish Brown Latasolic soils are favorable for plant growth. The chemical fertility of wet zone soils is poor because these soils have been extensively leached due to high rainfall. The CEC values of most of the soils are low. This requires use organic manure and special fertilizer management practices on these soils. The base saturation of the dry zone soils remains at a higher range. Solodized solonetz, Bog and Half Bog soils are the major groups of problem soils found in the country. The agricultural potential of soils of Sri Lanka has been discussed by De Alwis and Panabokke (1972). In general, soils of Sri Lanka do not pose major problem for crop production.

The most recent major contribution for soil resources inventorization was implemented in 1998 through a project conducted by the Sri Lanka Soil Science Society with the financial assistance of Canadian Soil Science Society. The first phase of the project concentrated for the wet zone of Sri Lanka and soils ([map2.2.2]) were identified on series level based on soil chemical and physical properties ( Wet Zone Soils of Sri Lanka, 1998). This is an ongoing project and at present the soils occurring in Intermediate Zone has been mapped and documentation is in progress. The field work with respect to the Dry Zone is progressing. The information generated by the project is already in digital form and has developed into an information system. Thus information is being used for number of research and development planning actives.

2.3 Agroecological systems

An agro-ecological region represents a particular combination of the natural characteristics of climate, soil and relief (Panabokke, 1996). When an agro-climatic map, which can be considered as areas where the integrated effect of climate is uniform throughout the area for crop production, is superimposed on soil and terrain the resulting map identifies agro-ecological regions. Thus, each agro-ecological region represents somewhat uniform agro-climate, soils and terrain conditions and as such would support a particular farming system where certain range of crops and farming practices finds their best expression.

Regionality of the rainfall distribution in Sri Lanka has traditionally been generalized in to three climatic zones in terms of "Wet Zone" in the southwestern region including central hill country, and "Dry Zone" covering predominantly, northern and eastern part of the country, being separated by an "Intermediate zone," skirting the central hills except in the south and the west. In differentiating aforesaid three climatic zones, land use, forestry, rainfall and soils have been widely used (Panabokke, 1996). The Wet zone covers the area, which receives relatively high mean annual rainfall over 2,500 mm without pronounced dry periods. The Dry zone is the area, which receives a mean annual rainfall of less than 1,750 mm with a distinct dry season from May to September. The Intermediate zone demarcates the area, which receives a mean annual rainfall between 1,750 to 2,500 mm with a short and less prominent dry season. As low temperature is an important climatic factor affecting plant growth in the Wet and Intermediate zones of Sri Lanka, a sub-division based on the altitude takes into account the temperature limitations in these two climatic regions. In this delineation, the Low-country is demarcated as the land below 300 m in elevation and the Mid-country with elevation between 300 - 900 m while the Up-country is the land above 900 m elevation. Both Wet and Intermediate zones spread across all three categories of elevation while the Dry zone is confined to the Low-country resulting seven agro-climatic zones covering the entire island.

Based on many decades of work, Sri Lanka was divided in to 24 agro-ecological regions (Panabokke and Kannangara, 1975)( [map 2.3.1]). The differentiation of the Wet zone into its distinctive agro-ecological regions was governed primarily by differences in rainfall and elevation. In the Dry zone, on the other hand, it was the nature of the soil that primarily determines the identity of individual agro-ecological region. In the Intermediate zone, it was observed that rainfall, elevation and soil play an equally important role. According to this map, there were 10 agro-ecological regions in the Wet zone; 9 in the Intermediate zone and 5 in the Dry zone.

In Sri Lanka the impacts of climate change is visible in the form of increased variability of seasonal rainfall (Punyawardene 2003), thus necessitates updating existing agro-ecological models.

In view of the environmental change, availability of more spatial and temporal data and advancement of GIS technology led to the sub-division of 24 agro-ecological regions of Sri Lanka into a map with 46 agro-ecological sub-regions ([map 2.3.2]) on an enhanced scale (Punyawardena et al, 2003). The demarcation of the island into 46 agro-ecological sub-regions is shown in the map.

The main distinguishing characteristics of each agro-ecological region is denoted by a 4-character code consisting of letters and a number. Three major climatic zones are indicated by the first upper case letter of the code (W, I and D). The second upper case letter of the code (L, M and U) denotes three categories of elevation. The numerical character in the third place of the code represents a more detailed moisture regime (rainfall and evaporation combined) with a degree of wetness on the scale of 1 to 5 where 1 being the most favorable. The lower case letter in the fourth place indicates a sub-region as determined by rainfall distribution and other physical environmental factors where degree of wetness decreases a > f.

In the Wet zone, there are 15 agro-ecological sub-regions. Four sub-regions found in the Up-country wet zone show a distinct variation in the distribution of the South West Monsoon (SWM) rains. Being in the most effective area of the SWM rains, WM1a, WL1a and WU1a sub-regions receive the highest amount of rainfall of the country. Apart from the amount and distribution of SWM rains, relative effectiveness of North East Monsoon (NEM) rains has also played a vital role in distinguishing 6 sub-regions in the mid- country wet zone. The four months period from December to March is relatively "dry" in WM3a agro-ecological sub-region while there are two distinct dry periods in the WM3b due to reduced effectiveness of SWM rains over this sub-region. In the Low-country Wet zone, amount and distribution of SWM as well as First Inter Monsoon (FIM) rains were important in identifying the 5 agro-ecological sub-regions. Meanwhile, the months July, August and December in WL3 agro-ecological region does not receive adequate amount of rainfall and hence cannot be considered as wet months. As such, 4 months period extending from December to March is relatively "dry" in this region.

The Intermediate zone consists of 20 agro-ecological sub-regions out of which 15 sub-regions lie in the central hills. Varying degree of effectiveness of different rainfall governing mechanisms across the central hills has caused variety of growing environments in this region. There are 7 agro-ecological sub-regions in the Up country Intermediate zone out of which IU1 is reported to receive the highest annual rainfall among all sub-regions of the entire Intermediate zone. Being in the Knuckles range, this region receives ample amount of rains from NEM while the contribution from SWM rains is also substantial. Complex geographical settings of the IU3 agro-ecological region which encompasses almost whole of the so-called "Uva basin" have resulted 5 agro-ecological sub-regions due to high spatial variability of intermonsoonal and NEM rains in this region. Meanwhile, being located in the rain shadow area of the SWM, this region does not receive adequate rains during June to September resulting in dry and windy environment. The Mid country Intermediate zone has 7 agro-ecological sub-regions. Most of these sub-regions also do not receive adequate rains from SWM and, hence, 4 months period from June to September is relatively dry. Low country Intermediate zone consists of 5 agro-ecological sub-regions. Other than IL2, all other agro-ecological sub-regions in the Low country Intermediate zone resemble a bi-modal rainfall distribution. Since Second Inter Monsoon (SIM) and NEM rains are the only effective rainy seasons in the region, the IL2 agro-ecological region exhibits a distinctly uni-modal rainfall distribution along with a long and pronounced dry period from April to September.

In the Dry zone, there are 11 agro-ecological sub-regions with distinct differences in rainfall distribution and edaphic features. The DL3, DL4 and DL5 agro-ecological regions of the Dry zone receive the lowest annual rainfall of the country along with some limitations of soils that are found in these regions. Out of 11 agro-ecological sub-regions, only DL1a and DL1b are characterized by two discernible peaks in the rainfall distribution and thus, support crops in both Maha and Yala growing seasons. Those agro-ecological sub-regions found in the eastern sector of the Dry zone, i.e., DL1c, DL1d,

DL1e and DL2a and DL2b, exhibit a distinct uni-modal rainfall pattern, and support only the crops in Maha season. The rest of the agro-ecological sub-regions of the Dry zone also support only the Maha crop since Yala rains in those sub-regions are not adequate to meet the evapotranspiration requirements ( National Atlas of Sri Lanka, 2003)

Sri Lanka is blessed with heterogeneous agro-ecological environments. The situation creates a huge challenge for researchers related to land and water resources management. However, if properly understood at a reasonable resolution, this environments can be tapped more efficiently for improving the land productivity while maintaining the sustainability of resources base. Therefore further refinements of agro ecological zones at a finer resolution is becoming a necessity in near future.

Identification and characterization of growing seasons occurring in each ecological zone / sub zone, identifying the potentials and limitations for crop growth and development of suitable farming system/s for respective ecological environments is the next challenge for researchers.

2.4 Wetlands, mangroves and inland valley bottoms

Location; size of wetlands, mangrove areas or inland valley bottoms; size of catchment area

Present use (bio-diversity, agriculture, water treatment and use, fuel wood, building material, tourism, pasture, fishing, etc. etc.)

Hydrological situation (waterlogged, dry in part of the year, violence of flooding, water availability and quality over time and place, etc)

If irrigation or drainage equipment is present, what type, indication of costs, etc.

Changes noticed over the years (drying up, waterlogging, decrease or increase in fertility, etc.)

Changing role over the years (positive or negative from different perspectives, such as social, economic, agricultural, bio-diversity)

2.5 Inundation Land Types

This section is relevant only if the country has land that is seasonally inundated and regularly used for arable agriculture. Inundation land types (definition of inundation land types; inundation map, area and percentage cover of inundation land types)

2.6 Natural hazards

Incidence of fire, drought, floods, cyclones, type, location, frequency, damage to food crops, control methods adopted and their effectiveness.

2.7 Land cover

• Definition of land cover, land cover map and area occupied by different land cover types
• (Indicate classification scheme used)
• Trends in land cover (the period over which the trend has occurred should be specified)

2.8 Land use

The total land area of Sri Lanka is approximately 6.56 million hectares. Out of this nearly 300,000 ha. are covered by water bodies. Present per capita land availability of the country is 0.3 ha. There is a decreasing trend of this value as the population continues to increase. Moreover 2/3rd of the land area in the country fall within flat to undulating landform . The rest comprised of hilly and mountainous terrain where higher percentage of land area consists of highly dissected, steep slopes and narrow valleys.

Most recent scientific landuse mapping exercise was undertaken by the Survey Department of Sri Lanka during 1983 - 1988 periods ( Survey Department, 1988) The uses shown in these maps were grouped into 7 categories namely agricultural lands (arable), residential and buildup lands, forest lands, rangelands, water bodies , wetlands and barren lands.

Arable land extent of Sri Lanka is nearly 2.9 million hectares which are about 45% of the total land area of the country. The main agricultural land uses include paddy (27% ) and plantation crops ( tea, rubber and coconut, 24%) . It has to be noted that about 44% of the agricultural lands are sparsely used which means that there remains a great potential for these lands to be properly developed / used. This is about 20% of the land area of the country.

Traditional landuse in Sri Lanka had been rice lands in lowlands, and chena ( slash & burn) and the homesteads in the uplands. Rice lands were irrigated from reservoirs or streams. The paddy lands provided the staple food rice while chena provided coarse grains, pulses , oil seeds, vegetables and condiments. Homestead consist of house and perennial trees such as fruit and coconut.

This traditional landuse system in the country gradually changed with the influence of the western world starting from15th Century. An interest was developed to convert highlands to plantation crops. Cinnamon and Coconut were first established in coastal areas of the wet zone. Rapid change took place following introduction of coffee , tea and rubber plantations. Most of the forest in the wet zone was converted into plantations. This change of landuse resulted heavy soil erosion in the country.

In the dry zone, during the latter part of the 19th century, renovation of ancient irrigation schemes which had been abandoned were commenced. This resulted in clearing of forests for creating paddy fields and homesteads for new settlement schemes. Rapid increase of the irrigation extents in the country took place since 1930. This affected the traditional shifting cultivation where unavailability of forest lands made it impossible for farmers to have a sufficient fallow lands. This led farmers to do settled farming in the uplands. However low input farming practice continued in these lands and the result was an eroded upland with low production levels. This situation has posed challenges for land and water resources related researchers to put forward suitable / viable cropping systems to these situations. Rice was the main crop grown in paddy fields. However in early seventies upland crop cultivation under irrigation was introduced in these lands. This was the start of rice based cropping systems.; paddy grown in the main rainy season while it was followed by upland crops during minor rainy season.

2.9 Land use change

As land use is dynamic only major changes should be recorded, but the time period over which the estimate was made should be indicated.

The change with time in the distribution of land by land use type (and/or land cover type), LUT can be represented by one of the following five classes:

A change in the intensity of land use is expressed through changes in inputs, management, or cropping intensity (number of harvests per year), over approximately the last 10 years. Only changes within the same LUT and on the same area (change of intensity) are to be considered here - not changes from one LUT to another.

2.10 Land Productivity

US$ equivalents for the average production value per hectare per year for each land use type will be used as a relative indicator for productivity, and for estimating trends and regional differences. Figures for cropland will generally be easier to give than for other land uses, but if figures are known for grazing land or forest land, they should be reported as well.

Trends in use of major inputs: The production value for each LUT is related to inputs of materials, equipment and labour per hectare per year. Inputs: labour (own and hired), high yielding variety/improved seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, mechanization/hire of ox, cost of irrigation (source of funds for inputs may include income from outside farm, income from livestock)

The data might be affected by several factors such as shift in government policy; subsistence/commercial farming, illiteracy, etc.

Productivity trends: Although changes in productivity of crop and livestock LUTs can be attributed to a wide variety of causes, they may also be an indication of soil degradation or, if positive, of effective soil conservation and appropriate land management. Only a rough indication of trends in productivity (change with time in the rate of growth of yield per hectare of important crops or LUTs) is required here, but the period should be specified in view of variation in crop types and farming practices.

2.11 Environmental Impact of land uses

• Agricultural inputs: effects of nutrient imbalance on soil fertility; the application of mixed fertilizer programmes and results.
• Increase over time in degradation of cultivated fields resulting from deficiency of nutrients, lack of balance in the use of N,P and K, or excessive depletion of micro-nutrients.
• Extent of eutrophication of water bodies, soil acidification resulting and contamination of water supply with nitrate resulting from excessive levels of nutrients in the soil.
• Deforestation and land management: Extent of gaseous nitrogen losses and CO2 and methane emissions adding to the total emissions of nitrous oxide, CO2 and methane contributing to problems of climate change.

3. Water Resources (AQUASTAT)

3.1 Hydrography

3.2 Irrigation and drainage

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3.1 Hydrography

Country information on water resources is available at AQUASTAT. In case there is more information available, describe as follows.

• Water resources: Surface water, groundwater, non-conventional water resources, fossil resources. Major basins (surface and groundwater).
International rivers, agreements...
• Dams, flood control, mobilization of water resources
• Water withdrawal: Water use by sector and trends (trends in agricultural water withdrawal - irrigation and livestock watering - domestic water withdrawal and industrial water withdrawal, other uses,
• future: competition between sectors.
• Wastewater, treatment, reuse (agriculture)

3.2 Irrigation and drainage

• Irrigation potential (method of calculation):
• Place of irrigation/drainage in agriculture, percentage of cropland which is irrigated.
• History of irrigation in the country, trends. Description of the different irrigation systems.
• Irrigation methods (spate, flood recession, full control...).
• Irrigation techniques, breakdown by technique (sprinkler, surface..),. Trends in development of drip and sprinkler irrigation. Breakdown by source of water (river, groundwater..), Waste water reuse in irrigation.
• Irrigated schemes: typology by size and by operating modes: scheme size, number of beneficiaries, management, performances, cropping intensity, fees.
• Cost of irrigation development, cost of O&M, return form irrigation
• Irrigated crops: major crops, areas and production, comparison rainfed/irrigated yields for major crops.
• Institutional environment: Institutions in charge of water resources assessment, development of irrigation: mandates of the main institutions.
• Legislation on water and land status, implementation.
• Trends in water resources and irrigation development, constraints to development, institutional changes, perspectives.

4. Plant nutrient resources

4.1 Plant nutrient use and nutrient balance

4.2 Fertilizer production and costs

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4.1 Plant nutrient use and nutrient balance

4.2 Fertilizer production and costs

5. Hot spots

5.0 Overview: constraints to sustainable agriculture

5.1 Land-related constraints

5.2 Water-related constraints

5.3 Plant nutrition-related constraints

5.4 other constraints

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5.0 Overview: constraints to sustainable agriculture

Land degradation can be defined as the process of weakening or impairing land productivity due to natural or anthropogenic activities. Problem of land degradation have been evident through out the Sri Lankan history. However, significant land degradation began during the past 150 years, particularly after the introduction of commercial plantation agriculture. In 1900, with a population of only 3.5 million , Sri Lanka has approximate forest cover of 70 percent. By 1953, when population reached 8.1 million, natural forest cover had diminished to 44 percent approximately, and when the population doubled by the mid 1980's the forest cover was around 25 percent. At present with an estimated population of 19 million the per capita land availability is 0.3 ha. As the arable land is almost half of the above figure, at present a tremendous pressure on land is exerting whish is eventually degrading land resources as a whole.

The pressures created by a rapidly expanding population have resulted in a high level of environmental degradation in the country. This has manifested itself in several ways; heavy soil loses, high sediment yields, soil fertility decline and reduction of crop yields, marginalization of agricultural lands, salinization and land slides. The most significant of theses are heavy soil losses and high sediment yields, thus soil erosion should receive the highest attention.

5.1 Land-related constraints

Serious concerns about soil erosion in Sri Lanka have been expressed since 1873, when Sir J.D.Hooker stressed dangers of indiscriminate plantation agriculture. One result was the restriction of land cultivation above 1,525 meters msl. In 1931, a Committee on Soil Ersion documented the damadge caused by plantation crops. The Soil Conservation Act of 1951, which followed devastating earth slips in the hill country , in particular in the Kothmale valley, has been largely neglected since. As Stockings (1986) observed , the reality of soil conservation in Sri Lanka today, is one of much rhetoric, little action; the concern of some, the disdain of others.

In one of the earliest estimates of sediment transport based on measured sediment yields Joachim and Pandithesekara (1930), estimated 132 - 833 thousand tons/ year ( 115 / tons /hectare /yr) for the upper Mahaweli catchment, 55 % of which was under tea. The studies have shown that an average 15 million tons of sediment, for the period of 1952 - 1982 passed in the upper Mahaweli watershed through the Peradeniya gauging station. Other estimates of soil loss due to erosion have been reported from different parts of the country. TAMS / USAID (1980) reports soil losses in Maha Oya catchment ( Mid Country) in lands under Tobacco on slopes ranging from 45 - 60%. Estimates range from 388 to 913 t/ha/yr.

In Sri Lanka information / research finding related to soil erosion estimates under different land uses are available on adhoc basis. There has been no continuous monitoring of erosion status / process or sediment transport. However attempts have been taken to asses the risk of erosion under the present landuse in the Central Province where most of the central massif is belongs to. The Figure 3 indicates the susceptibility for soil erosion or erosion hazard under the existing land uses. The extents falling under each erosion hazard classes are given in tables No 2. ( Munasinghe et al 2001) The study helps to prioritize erosion prone areas within the Central Province and identify areas where landuse changes are necessary. However it is necessary to carry out assessments of soil erosion to answer the questions of 'Where it is occurring", "What will happen under the present management ?" "What changes are necessary especially interns of landuse and where it should be ?" Therefore, studies related to monitoring of soil erosion on regional or watershed basis is essential in the near future rather than concentrating on plot or point measurements which are in cooperating biasness to the result if one generalizes.

[Table 5.1.1: Extents under each soil erosion hazard class within the Central Province of Sri Lanka]

Available evidence suggests that the frequency and magnitudes of landslides has increased in recent years causing serious damage to life and property (Jayawardene , 1980 ). However, records before 1970 appear sketchy and many landslides have gone unrecorded, like the Kothmale landslide of 1947. Small landslides that do not cause much damage to life and property are not recorded by the Geological Survey or the Social Services Department. The National Building Research Organization (NBRO) which is the mandated institute for land slide hazard assessments recorded around 136 landslides during 1986 /87 period. In early June 1988, Sri Lanka experienced a devastating landslide damage, which caused over 300 deaths. According to Parliament Reports approximately 225,000 people in ten Districts were affected by floods and landslides that destroyed over 15,00 homes. Cost for rehabilitating was estimated at about 120 million rupees at 1988 prices (Madduma Bandara, 1989). It must be noted that in the year 2003 so far, there were nearly 500 landslides and cutting edge failures occurred within the southwestern slope of the country claming nearly 200 human lives along with colossal amount of property damage.

Increasing damage to life and property from landslides obviously related to the spread of human settlements into unsuitable areas which prone to landslides. Needs for mapping and identification of hazardous areas is a high priority and the activity is in progress. Most of the vulnerable areas have been mapped at 1:10,000 scale by the NBRO and have submitted for relevant authorities for the implementation through relocation of settlements. However the implementation needs collaboration of stakeholders and should be lead by Provincial Administration where the progress is not agreeable.

5.2 Water-related constraints

5.3 Plant Nutrition-related constraints

5.4 Other constraints

Occurrences of salinity and water logging is associated with coastal areas and irrigated arras within the dry zone of Sri Lanka.

With development of recent irrigation facilities, it was anticipated that salinity would become a problem over the years, but because Sri Lanka's not as arid as most of the areas of the world affected by salinity, salts that accumulate in surface flushes with the high intensity rains occurring on seasonal basis. According to Lathief and Nayakakorale (1993), saline / alkaline soils, waterlogged soils and potential acid Sulphate soils are the major problem soils found in Sri Lanka. Saline and alkaline soils have been classified as Solodized Solonetz ( Natraqualfs) and Soloncladeschacks (Salothids) ( De Alwis & Panabokke, 1972). Both theses soils contain Na and Ca as dominant cations. Both soils are found in areas where soil is affected by coastal salinity. These soil groups cover an area of about 16,000 ha. Weerasinghe (1994) reported that the affected paddy extent due to acid Sulphate soil in Matara District ( Main district of the Southern Part) was about 1000 ha.

It was observed that the conversion of agricultural lands to other uses such as residential, trade, industrial, infrastructure development mining takes place at an increased rate over the last two decades and will be continued even in the future. Adhoc paddy land filling also creates a problem of drainage, resulting considerable extent of paddy lands uncultivable especially in low country wet zone where urbanization is rapid. Flash floods and heath hazards due to mosquitoes are a frequent dilemma in these areas. Integrated or system level development according to a well prepared plan is essential to avoid above situations.

6. Bright spots

6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation

6.3 Plant nutrition-related response indicators

6.4 Other response indicators

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6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation

Soil Conservation Act of Sri Lanka was first came into effect in 1951 as Act No. 25 with the objective of conserving soil resource, prevention or mitigation of soil erosion and protection of land against floods and droughts. It was amended in 1996 by Soil Conservation (Amendment) Act No. 24 of 1996 to include wider scope thus addressing land degradation as well. The Department of Agriculture has been the implementing agency for the Soil Conservation Act from its inception.

6.1 Land-related response indicators

• Available lands for sustainable agricultural development
Sound policies for land allocation and use. Number and proportion of local governments and local communities to which resource management has been devolved.
• Examples and perspectives of sustainability of production systems: sustainable land use systems. Success stories in land use
• Land care programmes. Number and type of farmer organisations or associations promoting soil conservation practices, conservation tillage practices or treating lands suffering from salinity, etc.
• Number of farmers participating in soil conservation and other land improvement technologies promoted by government, e.g. soil conservation structures, soil conservation tillage, use of special inputs (manure, lime) etc.

6.2 Water-related response indicators

6.3 Plant Nutrition-related response indicators

6.4 Other response indicators

7. Challenges and viewpoints

From the very beginning, the implementation of Soil Conservation act(mentioned in 6.0 Bright spots) was restricted only to awareness creation among stakeholders and technical assistance as and when necessary , but no attempts were taken to take legal action against the violators for obvious reasons. Among those ambiguity or lack of clarity in legal provisions, inadequacy, inconsistence and vague legal expressions or provisions, inadequacy of institutional framework and infrastructure can be quoted.

In order to overcome those drawbacks another amendment to the existing Act is on the way. Followings points will be taken into consideration in the proposed amendment.

Gazetting new regulations
Recent development activities other than agriculture have resulted accelerated erosion. Thus there is a necessity of identifying such activities and widen the legal frame work to act against such activities.

Identification and declaration of conservation areas
Declaration of conservation areas under the Soil Conservation Act of Sri Lanka has been done mostly based on expert judgments, but amendments are proposed based on a study conducted (Munasinghe 2002) to identify such areas and it suggests that a geographical area nearly 10, 618 sq. km of should be declared as a Conservation area.

Institutional strengthening
The Authority of implementing Soil Conservation Act vests on the Department of Agriculture (DOA) and the Natural Resources Management Centre (NRMC) is the responsible Unit for implementing the Act. However at present institutional framework of the NRMC is not adequate enough to handle the Act effectively. Human resources and infrastructure development, establishment of an operation network at field level are essential for its successful implementation.

Review existing legislation
Legal provisions pertaining to the protection and sustainable use of land recourses are contained in several major enactments other than the Soil Conservation Act (Paddy Lands Act, Act of Agrarian Services, National Environmental Act etc. ) and these are enforced by a number of agencies. The presence of large number of Acts do not provide sound basis for efficient land management. Hence there is a need to review existing laws and regulations and develop appropriate legal frame work for effective implementation of land management strategies. In this effort one can use the Soil Conservation act as the umbrella framework.

Appropriate landuse
Landuse play a key role in determining the vulnerability of a land for soil erosion. Therefore steps should be taken to ensure land is being utilized based on their suitability for a particular use. The Ministry of Lands has already prepared the draft landuse policy and they are expecting views and comments from government, non-governmental organizations and from public before finalization. Once the Policy accepted and approved, the Land Use Act will be prepared. However when implementing such Acts promotion of watershed and river-basin planning to address the issues of soil erosion in critical catchments is essential. In order to cater these needs National Watershed Policy is being formulated in the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources (2003).

Land Policies
Successive governments have used land resources to provide employment to the rural population. This policy of providing land in lieu of employment opportunities should be discouraged. In addition encroachments on state lands especially in environmentally fragile areas has become a problem. Hence there is need to review current land alienation and encroachment regulation policies and to formulate a land alienation policy that would encroach into sensitive area. Reviewing land tenure systems in relation to their impact on land productivity also should be considered. On the other hand large number of people who use land without a proper title often do not take any interest on conserving soil due to their uncertainty in ownership. Moreover land policies should be formulated to handle the problem of land fragmentation through prosing minimum land extents for different uses in different regions.

Establishment of appropriate institutional framework and their coordination
There are number of government organizations dealing with land management. However under local context coordination among those institutes are minimum or not existing at all. Hence there is need to promote and strengthen coordination among different organizations dealing with land resources management.

Create Public Awareness
Public seem to be unaware of the seriousness of the soil erosion problem and need for soil conservation. Holding education and awareness creation programmes on soil conservation focusing on schools, government officers and the general public should draw the attention.

Providing alternative income generating opportunities
It is widely accepted that environmental degradation and poverty are closely linked. Rural community rely on natural resources mainly on land for survival but do not have the ability to invest on improvements to improve or conserve the resource base. This degrades the resource base. A policy of weaning rural people away from land based employment should be adopted by promoting and establishing agro-based and other industries in rural areas for efficient use of agricultural products and generation of additional income. Livestock farming should also be encouraged and marketing and value addition should be received high priorities.

Building up a database
As mentioned earlier there is no systematic monitoring program on land degradation in Sri Lanka. Efficient monitoring program will help to understand the present situation and would be able to understand the current trend; thus provide information for decision making. However a relevant, updated database is a prerequisite for efficient monitoring. In addition maintenance of useful information in public domain is essential, hence planners, researchers, extensionists and public would be able to carryout there land management activities based on a sound footing.

Proper planning and Implementation of management strategies on Provincial / District basis

8. References and related internet links

8.1 References

8.2 Related internet links

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8.2 Related internet links

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Sri Lanka AS DRAFT

1. Country overview

1.1 Geography and administrative units

1.2 Socio-economic features

1.3 Climate

2. Land resources

2.1 Physiography

2.2 Soils

2.3 Agroecological systems

2.4 Wetlands, mangroves and inland valley bottoms

2.5 Inundation Land Types

2.6 Natural hazards

2.7 Land cover

2.8 Land use

2.9 Land use change

2.10 Land Productivity

2.11 Environmental Impact of land uses

3. Water Resources (AQUASTAT)

3.1 Hydrography

3.2 Irrigation and drainage

4. Plant nutrient resources

4.1 Plant nutrient use and nutrient balance

4.2 Fertilizer production and costs

5. Hot spots

5.0 Overview: constraints to sustainable agriculture

5.1 Land-related constraints

5.2 Water-related constraints

5.3 Plant Nutrition-related constraints

5.4 Other constraints

6. Bright spots

6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation

6.1 Land-related response indicators

6.2 Water-related response indicators

6.3 Plant Nutrition-related response indicators

6.4 Other response indicators

7. Challenges and viewpoints

8. References and related internet links

8.1 References

8.2 Related internet links