1. INTRODUCTION

Albania is in Southeast Europe and more precisely on the western side of the Balkan Peninsula (see Figure 1); it is bordered by Greece to the south and southeast, by Macedonia and Kosovo to the east, and by Montenegro to the north. Its western border is the Adriatic and Ionian Sea. The Illyrians, the ancestors of the Albanian people, together with the Greeks are the most ancient people in the Balkans. The Albanian language is unique and one of ten branches of the Indo-European family of languages. Agriculture began in Albania in very ancient times, in the Neolithic Age.

Figure 1. Albania in Europe

Albania is a small (see Figure 2), very mountainous country with a population of about 3.1 million people (according to the World Factbook the July 2006 population was 3,581,655 with a growth rate of 0.52%); the capital Tirana has about 700,000 inhabitants. It has a total area of 28,750 km², of which 24 percent is agricultural land, 36 percent forest and 15 percent pasture and meadow. The remaining 25 percent is classified as other, which includes urban areas, about 135,000 hectares of lakes and waterways and unused rocky and mountain land. The average agricultural land per capita at 0.2 hectares is the smallest in Europe, even though agricultural land more than doubled from 1950 to 1990 due to drainage of marshland, terracing and cultivation of forest and pastures, and establishment of new irrigation schemes. Agriculture still provides the income base for most of the population and serves as an employment safety net. The rural population is estimated at about 54 percent of the total population while more than 60 percent of the labour force works in agriculture and related fields.

Figure 2. Map of Albania Source: The General Libraries of The University of Texas at Austin

Land area, arable and pastoral areas
More than 75 percent of the total area is hilly and mountainous. The relief has a mean altitude of 708 metres above sea level: more than double that of Europe. Nevertheless, Albania's topography displays great variability. Altitudes range from sea level along the Adriatic to 2 751 metres at Korabi Mountain in the northeast of the country. Accordingly, the land used for agriculture is quite hilly, with only about 44 percent having a slope of less than 5 percent. Most arable areas are in the coastal plains and hills (see Figure 3). In addition, the Albanian southeast (districts Pogradec, Korçë, Devoll and Kolonjë) is distinguished by the presence of an extensive arable-agricultural area on high plateaux 700-800 m above sea level. Also more than ten valleys of main rivers flow from East to West side into the Adriatic and Ionian Seas. The amount of arable land greatly increased between 1950 and 1990, with 17 percent of this increase gained through land reclamation, and the rest by pasture and forest conversion. Shallow soil and low fertility of the converted lands could not justify the investments made and they began to suffer from serious erosion shortly after they were opened up. For these reasons 19 percent of arable land is in the mountains, 37 percent in the hills and 44 percent in the plains. In general, the arable land at high elevations is of low fertility. Until 1938 pastures and meadows made up 44 percent of Albania's territory and were considered a basic national resource. An important part of these pastures and meadows containing plentiful herbage were unique for livestock raising, but these were subsequently converted to arable land. The main pastoral areas are now in the north and northeast as part of the Albanian Alps where the climate is wet and cold, and in the southeast and south with a dry and warm climate.

Figure 3. Land use [Click to view full map]

Ruminant sector
Livestock rearing is a traditional economic activity in Albania. Before World War II it was much more important than crops. Nowadays, it accounts for 47 percent of agricultural production, a contribution that is higher than in other Mediterranean countries. Albanians have relied primarily on animal husbandry, which is attributable to the favourable pedoclimatic conditions in the region. In the twentieth century there were three different situations in Albania's livestock structure: (a) before World War II it was dominated by sheep and goats, raised mainly for milk and to a lesser extent, for meat and wool. On average there were three of those animals per head of population; (b) during the 50 year of the communist regime the number of sheep and goats increased by only 250,000 or 10 percent; (c) this compares with 2.6 fold increases for cattle and 5 and 8 fold increases for pigs and poultry, respectively during the first 10 years of the democratic system. However, livestock yields for the three periods (see Table 1) remained below their potential and below yields in neighbouring countries (also see Table 3 for various livestock data).

Cows. Before World War II, cows were primarily used as draught animals. In comparison with 1938, the number of cows increased 2.2 times and in 2002 they increased 3.9 times. Milk and meat production, however, increased more, 5.5 and 8.5 times respectively. This increases reflects the significant efforts that have been made both by state and private organizations to improve the breeds and their feeding.
Sheep. Sheep have been traditionally very important to Albanian peasants. In 1990 and 2002 sheep numbers increased by 5 percent and 21 percent respectively compared to 1938. Milk production increased much more during this period but the milk yield per ewe remains very low (48 litres /head). Sheep depend entirely for feeding on grazing lands, especially pastures, both in winter and summer. In summer they also use arable land, after harvest. Flock size is small (about 20-30 animals), but in some areas larger flocks can be found belonging to one or more farmers.
Goats. Goat numbers fluctuated over the years as for sheep. Milk production remained the same during the same periods reflecting again the breeding programmes that are applied, especially with the introduction of the alpine breed. Milk yield per doe remains low (87 litres /head). Goats also depend entirely for feeding on grazing, especially shrub lands and coppiced forests. Fodder collected from lopping of oak trees is mainly used in winter.
Equidae. The numbers of donkeys, mules and horses are relatively small and they do not compete with sheep and goats.
The relative importance of livestock production has increased steadily since the socio-economic reforms of the last decade of the twentieth century, with its contribution increasing from 42 per cent in 1992 to 50 percent in 1999. Livestock production fits well into the smallholder farming system and has an important social security function. Households aim to produce enough milk and meat for domestic consumption, with a limited surplus sold where possible in the local market or to the increasing number of small processing plants. The small-scale nature of livestock production is illustrated from the 1998 agricultural census, which reported that about 302,000 households owned one or two cows; only 5,350 households owned more than two cows, and just 70 households owned more than 10 cows. Livestock also provides transport for people and goods and is often used for land preparation. Other factors explaining the increase include the availability of land suited for forage; the possibility to increase numbers without large expenditure; availability of labour for livestock care; ability to derive regular income from livestock products; and a growing demand for livestock products.
Cattle numbers are now about 4 per cent and sheep numbers about 22 per cent higher than in 1989. Cows now comprise more than 60 per cent of the cattle herd compared with 40 per cent in 1989, reflecting the increasing importance of milk production and greater reliance on forage-based production systems. Efficiency of production has also improved, as evidenced by milk yields increasing from 1 500 kg/cow in 1992 to 1 800 kg/cow in 2000. Overall, from 1989 to 2000, milk and meat production figures increased by 80 per cent and 33 per cent respectively, egg production more than doubled, and honey production increased more than ten-fold.
Export and import markets. Albania’s main agricultural exports are tobacco and fish products. The main agricultural import is wheat. The main trading partners are neighbouring European Union countries. The share of exports in GDP amounted to 10 percent in 1999, which is low compared to neighbouring transition countries. The composition of trade has changed notably and agricultural imports shifted towards primary products. The proportion of agricultural imports increased from around 22 percent in 1993 to 27 percent in 1999. These data suggest a trend over the last decade away from market production towards subsistence agriculture and a growing dependence on agricultural imports. The ratio of import/export of agricultural and food products was 10: 1 (average of years 2000-2002). The value of agricultural exports and imports in 2002 was (in percentage): Crops 38 and 26, livestock 18 and 9, agro industry 37 and 63, fishery 7 and 2. FAO in May 2004 indicated that cereal output was expected to be about average in 2004 after a relatively favourable growing season up to that point. Wheat output was forecast at about 285 000 tonnes and that of maize at 195 000 tonnes. With this level of production, the cereal import requirement for 2004/05 was expected to remain about the average of the past five years at around 370 000 tonnes.
Farming sectors
Under Albanian law, land has been granted to the owners as a family unit; it has been allocated to citizens and land titles have been issued, distributed, and registered for approximately 80 percent of all rural land. Issues of concern are small farm size and high level of fragmentation, with farms generally consisting of two to four or more widely scattered plots. Since 1991, the structure of agriculture has changed radically. Instead of large farm units, there are now 467,000 peasant families owning about 546,000 hectares or on average 1.17 hectares per household. About 70 percent of farms have less than 1.5 hectares of land. In general, these farms resemble each other because they grow the same crops (cereals, vegetables, potatoes, beans, tobacco and forage). In addition, they have some vines, fruit trees, olives, and citrus. Almost every family has 1-2 milking cows, 5-6 sheep or goats, 10-20 chickens, some swine, and probably transport animals. Only a limited numbers of farms, mainly in coastal plains or close to suburban areas, practice a more intensive agriculture that allows them to produce for the market.
Marketing. Marketing conditions for livestock products are poor. Cow milk is mainly used for drinking and only a small production is processed for yoghurt. Due to the lack of organized collection networks and processing centres, a relatively small proportion of it is marketed. The remaining quantities are used within the family or processed into yoghurt. Conditions for meat are similar; calves are sold in the village or in the nearest urban centre. Sheep and goat milk are mainly used for cheese, very little for direct consumption. For each district there are 10-20 processing centres, which collect 40-70 percent of the milk of the area. The other 30-60 percent is kept by the producers to make their own cheese products.
The situation is the same with the lambs and kids. A surplus of lambs in the market keeps the price very low. Farmers try to sell their products directly to consumers (families, restaurants, etc), some times without success. Marketing of livestock products in Albania is a big problem. Farmers claim that their products are biological (organic) and they are right, but still market outlets are few. If this is not solved soon, many young farmers will abandon stock rearing and follow other activities, which ensure a better income to them, or will emigrate.

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Table 3 gives data for various livestock numbers, meat, milk and wool production as well as cattle, meat and milk imports for the period 1996-2005. The data were taken from FAOSTAT

Table 3. Albania statistics for livestock numbers, meat, milk and wool production, and cattle, meat and milk imports for the period 1996-2005

Source: FAO statistical database 2006; n.r. no records

Traditional systems (pastoral and agropastoral, mixed smallholder, landless systems)
Traditional systems continue to be the basis of rearing animals, especially sheep and goats. Nowadays the cattle breeds are mixed. During the period of normal pasture growth (April – October) they graze; when the vegetation is limited they are stall fed.
In Albania, the political – economical system changed in 1991 from a communist dictatorship to a capitalist democracy. Land ownership also changed along with grazing rights and livestock and the management systems in agriculture. Livestock production systems are not yet well defined and stabilized. In the traditional systems the following systems can be distinguished.
Pastoral system
The pastoral system includes transhumance and sometimes nomadic herding. The natural environment of Albania has two important implications for forage production. A positive one is the great variety of plant species and habitats that grazing animals can use resulting in an increased quantity and, especially, quality of animal products. A negative one are the feed gaps, a big one (3-6 months) in the hot and dry summer when herbaceous plants are dormant, and a small one (2-3 months) in winter due to the low temperatures when plants grow slowly or completely interrupt their growth. This difficult problem was solved by the Albanian farmers over the centuries through transhumance, by moving their animals from the lowlands, where they were kept in winter, to the summer pastures in the uplands and vice versa. This great tradition, also practiced in other Mediterranean countries, has declined since 1990 due to the emigration of people to the urban centres and abroad as well as to the unwillingness of young farmers to move their animals to the mountains any more, thus increasing grazing pressure on the winter pastures. An additional more important reason is the fact that, following the agricultural reform in the early nineteen-nineties, that involved the division and privatisation of land in the plains used in the past as winter pastures, the mountain farmers have difficulties in contacting the numerous owners in the lowlands to organize their transhumance. However, in the last five years, the number of owners with a hundred and more sheep is increasing, so transhumance is becoming more effective to practice. The summer-mountainous pastures are not so far from winter-lowland pastures and usually most of the transhumance takes place within the same district or to the neighbouring district. Transhumance time is only one day when it is done using trucks or 3 – 10 days when the animals walk.
Agropastoral
This is now commoner than the pastoral system because in autumn-winter-spring the animals graze a combination of arable land and small remaining winter pastures in the lowlands; while from mid May – mid September grazing continues in mountainous pastures.
Mixed smallholder
This system is now typical. It is connected with the number of animals/flocks. Generally sheep flocks are small (about 20-30 animals), but in some areas larger flocks can be found belonging to one or more farmers (i.e. combined flocks with several owners); some goats are mixed with sheep in the same flock, but in most areas there are pure goat flocks; each farm keeps 1-2 cows and the typical stock farmer raises 10-15 cows for milk or 30-70 calves and heifers.
Socio – economic limitations
Pasture legislation was part of land reform privatisation which included: (a) the development of a comprehensive legal and regulatory framework for land administration and land market development; (b) the establishment of an Immovable Property Registration System for real property titles and registration; and (c) a comprehensive, donor-supported programme to provide first time registration to new land owners. In some areas local privatisation initiatives preceded the formal land privatisation process and land was distributed to individuals and families without formal Government sanction. The decision not to allow restitution for rural land does not apply to urban land, and thousands of competing claims in urban areas are further clogging the courts and slowing the issuance and registration of urban titles. This differing approach for rural and urban land presents a problem for security of title in rural areas surrounding the major urban centres where land is rapidly being reclassified as urban. These issues are leading to a great deal of uncertainty around land ownership and are increasing the risks of investing in land and using land to secure financial transactions. Other issues of concern are the small farm sizes and high level of fragmentation with farms that are an obstacle for commercial production, for mechanized cultivation etc. One initiative is using market transactions and information to engage communities in dialogue on the benefits of consolidations.
The degradation of natural resources in Albania is an important long-term constraint to sector development. Problems include: (a) uncontrolled deforestation; (b) large livestock numbers and consequent overgrazing, particularly in mountain areas; (c) soil erosion and degradation through cropping on marginal lands, especially on steep slopes before the collapse of the old regime, in 1991; (d) loss of scarce and productive arable land through rapid urbanization; (e) degradation of water resources and catchments; and (g) increased vulnerability to flood damage.

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE

Grazing lands
A large part (36 percent) of Albania is classified as forests, which include not only high and coppice forests but also shrub lands. The second major land use category (24 percent) is arable land and the third is pastures which are largely uncultivated areas covered mainly by herbaceous vegetation and small shrubs; a small but very important category of pastures is hay meadows. All the other lands such as rocky areas, water bodies and settlements are lumped together in a single group that occupies 25 percent of the country.
Under the Albanian National Forest Inventory (ANFI 2001) a new land cover-use map has been produced which allocates different proportions to the various categories from the above official ones. More specifically, forests were found to cover 53 percent of Albanian territory, pastures and meadows 17 percent and other areas 9 percent. Since this map has not yet been officially accepted, this Profile reflects the official agricultural statistics (see Table 4).

Pastures and meadows
Officially, only pastures and meadows are considered as grazing lands in Albania. They are distributed throughout the country and divided into two groups depending on the season of use: Winter pastures, in the lowlands and used in winter including spring and autumn; and Summer pastures, in the mountains and used in summer for 4-6 months (May-October). The latter include all pastures in the sub-alpine and alpine zones and amount to about 61 percent of the whole area. Dominant herbaceous species in winter pastures are several annual grasses and legumes as well as perennials such as Dactylis glomerata, Festuca ovina, Poa bulbosa and Lolium perenne; while in the summer pastures only perennials such as Poa pratensis, Phleum montanum, Nardus stricta, Trifolium alpestre, Trifolium repens, etc. are found.
Improvement of state pastures includes watering points, rock collection to increase the productive area, shrub cutting, removal of weeds and fertilization (see Table 5). These improvements also include plantations of Robinia pseudoacacia for fodder.

Pasture condition
Pastures are in relatively poor condition; this is based on the following criteria:

(a) there is a large proportion of unpalatable plants or weeds, both herbaceous (e. g. Asphodelus microcarpus, Urginea maritima, etc.) and woody (e. g. Phlomis fruticosa, Rubus sp., etc);
(b) a large proportion of pasture is bare soil, and
(c) there is conspicuous accelerated erosion, accompanied by landslides, especially in areas of flysch and marls. There is no erosion in pastures on karst areas, but a large proportion of the ground (almost 40 percent) is bare rock.

As a result of their condition, productivity of pastures and meadows is low. Under good soil conditions winter pastures yield no more than 1 500 kg DM/ha, and summer pastures no more than 1 000 kg DM/ha. Under fair to poor soil conditions, which predominate, the yield of forage is substantially less; the average herbage production is no more than 600 kg DM/ha or even much less (227 kg DM/ha) (USAID, 1996).
Pastoral wildfires are related to the degradation of pastures. The new Pastures and Meadows law prohibits burning of pastures and meadows but allows the use of fire in special cases under the authorization of the DGFP. This is a good provision since it may help initiate the use of fire for pasture improvement.
Grassland condition assessment
Pasture condition refers to grassland health or current production in relation to its potential. In Albanian pastures three classes are identified on the basis of the desirability to livestock of plants making up the rangeland vegetation, the presence of litter on the soil, the height and crown cover of the shrubs and the degree of soil erosion. They are as follows:

Forests Grazing Management. In Albania, high forests are pure or mixed and consist of mainly beech, black pine, oak, maritime pine, fir and other broadleaves and conifers. They are managed in the classical way by thinning or clear cutting and natural regeneration. Coppice forests are also pure or mixed and consist mainly of oaks and beech. They are managed for firewood but also serve as fodder through lopping of oak trees. Shrubs lands consist of several species both evergreen and deciduous (e. g. Arbutus unedo, Erica spp., Quercus coccifera). They are used for firewood and grazing.
Officially, forests are not considered as grazing lands. However, both shrub lands, coppice and high forests are grazed. The only areas where grazing is not allowed are the “protected forests” and areas, which have been delimited in the high and coppice forests. Lopping of oak trees for fodder, especially for goats, in winter is common practice at least in coppice forests. Also, in some shrub lands, such as those dominated by Quercus coccifera, grazing is the only practice applied. Fire is sometime used to open up these shrub lands and make them suitable for sheep grazing.

Arable land grazing. Land ownership is about 0.2 hectares per capita on average, which means that there is no real incentive for cultivation, so a great part of the arable lands is under-utilized and grazing is the main activity. Even the cultivated area is grazed after the harvest. Straw is collected and stacked for use in winter. In addition, forage and hay crops are grown (about 40 percent of the total cropland: lucerne, maize, annual clovers and ryegrasses, etc.). It is a common practice to graze under trees after the fruit harvest.

Fodder Supply and Grazing. The developing livestock sector makes a considerable demand on feed and fodder supplies. Possibilities for expansion of natural pasture are limited, so increased feed must come from improved production of fodder such as lucerne, maize and other grasses, and improved utilization of industrial by-products such as olive cake, bran and soybean meal. Forage crops are now grown on 165,000 hectares, or 40 percent of the cropped arable land, with lucerne comprising about two-thirds of this area. Most is harvested by hand and there are problems with weeds and poor storage of hay. More emphasis should be placed on measures to improve forage quality, enhance management and feeding practices and increase availability of clean seed. Grazing resources including pasture, forest, and some agricultural land are fundamental for livestock raising. But many pastures and forests have degraded significantly over the last 5 to 10 years, particularly in land close to communities where over-grazing and over-cutting of wood have resulted in reduced productivity and soil erosion.

Legislation and government for livestock fodder and pastures
The Law on “Pasture and Grazing Land” (No. 7917 of April 13, 1995) is for land covered with grass and shrubs which is used for grazing and mowing and belongs neither to the agricultural land fund nor to the forest fund. It divides pastures and meadows into:

(a) State-owned pasture lands amounting to 38 percent of the whole area and are administered by the Directorate General of Forests and Pastures (DGFP) in the Ministry of Agriculture and Food (MAF);
(b) State-owned pasture lands for general use (communal pastures) amount to 54 percent, administered by the corresponding municipality and commune; and
(c) Privately-owned lands amounting to 8 percent of the whole area, including group ownership. This Law goes further than the forest law by decentralizing user rights to local government institutions and allowing participation of the affected population. Communes are fully responsible for the technical and financial management of communal pastures and can also establish ten-year lease contracts with people interested in using them. DGFP’s role is to approve changes in the use of communal and private pastures, provide assistance (extension services) against payment, and protect pastures and meadows from damage.

(a) rehabilitate and increase the productivity of pastures near villages in order to meet firewood and fodder requirements; and
(b) assist in the transfer of land to communities, initiate participatory management of these areas with clear allocation of resources to local beneficiaries and achieve sustainable management through a system of user fees for maintenance of the resource and further investment. A total of 34 communes are now at various stages in the process. However, this is only a small proportion of the total number of communes, and substantial scope exists for including additional communes.

a. Pasture type with Andropogon spp. (distachyos, ischaemum and gryllus). These three species grow in winter pastures above 800-1 000 m above level sea, in poor and dry lands with pH 5.5 – 7.0. Associated species are Dactylis glomerata, Cynodon dactylon, Medicago minima, different Trifolium spp. (angustifolium, campestre, subterraneum ), Bellis perennis, Cichorium intybus. Grasses are 60 – 70 percent, legumes 10 – 20 percent, and plants of other botanical families 20 – 30 percent.
b. Pasture types with Cynodon dactylon and Lolium perenne. These plants grow in moister areas and not so dry climate, on not very productive land. Associated species are: Dactylis glomerata, different Trifolium spp. (pratense, subterraneum) and Lotus corniculatus. In this pasture type, the feeding value is better than pasture type with Andropogon.
c. Pasture type Festuca varia. These plants grow on calcareous slopes, dry and with low fertility. Associate species are: Festuca spp., Trifolium alpinum, different Listera, Hieracium hoppeanum etc. The proportion between Grasses – Legumes – Other Families is 8.0 : 0.5 : 1.5. Forage production is low and the forage quality is below average.
d. Pasture type with Nardus stricta. These plants grow on gentle slopes with medium moisture, where pH is 4.0 – 5.5.. The proportion grass – legume – other families is 7 : 1 : 2. Associated species are: different Agrostis, different Anthoxanthum, Genista pilosa, Trifolium repens etc. It is well known that Nardus stricta has forage low quality.
e. Pasture type with Phleum alpinum. These plants are typically of summer pastures growing in less productive lands. Associate species are: Festuca spp., Agrostis, Trifolium pratense, Lotus corniculatus. The proportion grasses – legumes – other families is 6 : 1 : 3. Forage production is higher and of better quality than in pasture type with Festuca because it grows on more fertile lands.
f. Pasture type with Agrostis capillaris. These plants grown in less productive lands than Phleum alpinum. For this reason, also forage production is less. The proportion grasses – legumes – other families is 6 : 1 : 3.

The first three types belong to the winter pastures and the last three types to the summer pastures.

Shrubs are spread over the most pasture surface, up to 800 – 1 000 metres above sea level. Dominant shrubs include: Arbutus unedo, Erica arborea, Myrtus communis, Quercus coccifera, Paliurus spina-christi, different Crataegus. Subshrubs that only grow 0.2 – 0.5 metres like different Artemisia and Astragalus angustifolius are spread in the summer pastures.

Stocking rate
The number of livestock grazing a unit area of land per year, in sheep equivalents per hectare is calculated for the various types of grazing lands by assuming that they are grazed by one or more kinds of animals (see Table 6). This assumption had to be made since there are no data on how the grazing resources are allocated among the different species. By comparing the data of this table (Table 6) with those of Table 2 (and recalculating – see Table 7) it becomes clear that the stocking rate of pastures is higher that the carrying capacity by about 20% if only sheep are considered (4.35 vs. 3.66), by 87% if sheep and goats are considered (6.84 vs. 3.66) and by 310 % if sheep, goats and cattle are considered. These results (Tables 6 & 7) suggest that the pastures of Albania are currently grazed by more than twice as many sheep and goats than the carrying capacity estimated with production data collected in 1981.

Grazing pressure, however, is not the same everywhere. It is highest on the winter pastures and in lowlands near villages and much lower in mountain areas, particularly summer pastures, where under-grazing seems to have become a problem locally due to the emigration of people to urban centres and abroad. As far as wooded lands are concerned, the pressure is highest in shrub lands, where goats mainly graze and least in high forests while in coppice forests it is intermediate.

Forage availability over the seasons. Grazing animals have a more or less constant feed demand over the calendar year with the exception of the period of pregnancy when demand is slightly increased. For dairy animals, an increased quality and quantity of feed is also required during lactation. On the contrary, the feed supply of pastures is not constant over the year due to climatic factors. On the lowlands (up to 800 m), with a typical Mediterranean climate, plant growth is confined to the favourable period in terms of moisture and temperature, namely in autumn after the first rains and in spring, while in winter, plant growth is reduced due to the low temperatures. On the winter pastures forage is available during autumn and spring. The same is true in arable lands used for grazing or hay. In the highlands (above 800 m altitude), the growing period moves towards the summer months due to the cold winters but the availability of forage throughout the summer depends very much on the occurrence of rain. A different case are the forests including shrublands, where the main forage supply is based on woody plants. Evergreen shrublands can provide browse to animals year-round but deciduous shrublands and forests only do so during summer.

Integrated management of wooded lands
As in other Mediterranean countries, grazing of forests in Albania is the most important non-timber use, if not the only economically viable one. The practice is traditional suggesting that most of these forests have been evolved with the presence of domestic animals. Both the flora and fauna have been adapted to grazing. Therefore, excluding livestock from these forests may have negative affects on biodiversity and ecodiversity thus creating more problems than leaving them inside. In addition, it may increase the fire risk. In technologically advanced Mediterranean countries, where livestock were removed from forests several years ago, disastrous wildfires have become a big threat to the forests and other ecosystems during the summer period. Grazing in wooded lands has both positive and negative effects. Domestic animals are herbivores, which constitute fundamental components of natural ecosystems and indispensable instruments for their functioning (energy and nutrient cycling). Whether they are beneficial or damaging largely depends on management and especially on grazing intensity. The issue, therefore, is not to exclude livestock from forests but to harmonize forest and livestock activities by integrating wooded lands in livestock production so that sustainable management of the forest resources is achieved (Papanastasis, 1984; 2003). On the other hand, relieving the forests from grazing pressure cannot be accomplished if pastures and arable lands are nor properly developed as a substitute to wooded lands for forage production.

High forests. In general, the primary objective in management of high forests is timber production. Forage production can be only be a secondary use. However, grazing is not compatible with all high forests. Even-aged dense forests of shade tolerant species, for example, produce no understorey vegetation under proper management during their whole life, therefore they are not suitable for grazing. If animals are allowed to get into such forests they will destroy them. Even under improper management such forests produce very little understorey vegetation which is worth grazing; they will lose more energy finding and collecting than they gain from eating such vegetation. Typical cases of this category are the beech and deciduous oak forests. Uneven-aged high forests (e.g. fir), are also unsuitable for grazing because they consist of all the age classes including seedlings, which are very vulnerable to livestock damage. High forests with the above characteristics not compatible with livestock grazing are the broadleaved and evergreen forests and woodlands dominated by Fagus silvatica or Abies borisii-regis, or the creek and riverine deciduous forest, the classes 3, 4, 8, 10, 13, 16 and 17 of the new land cover/use map of the ANFI project. These forest types should be fully protected from grazing. They amount to 350,762 ha or 23% of the total forest lands. They belong to forests (271,469 ha) and woodlands (79,293 ha). [Note: these data are from the new survey (see ANFI, 2001) and data may differ from those in Table 3. The same applies to data presented below].
On the contrary, even-aged open forests consisting of light-loving species produce enough understorey vegetation which can be used by livestock. Grazing, however, should be excluded during the early stages as well as during the regeneration period because seedlings will be chewed and damaged as well. Typical cases of this category are the pine forests (e.g. black pine). In these forests, grazing can be used as a management tool to remove understorey vegetation during the cultivation period thus reducing the competition for water and nutrients and preparing the seedbed for regeneration. In all these cases, grazing should be proper, namely the stocking rate should be equal to the grazing capacity. High forests belonging to this category in Albania are the classes 7 and 15. They amount to 62,127 ha or 4% of the total forest lands.
A special case is the so-called "Mediterranean forest" consisting of warm coniferous species such as Pinus halepensis, P. pinea, and P. pinaster. All these forests are quite open, because the dominant forest species are light-loving, thus favouring the growth of a lush woody understorey. Grazing in these forests is necessary in order to control the understorey and save them from wildfires. Mediterranean forests are the most flammable. In Albania, such forests belong to the classes 6, 9 and 14. They amount to 7,472 ha.

Coppice forests. The primary objective in management of coppice forests is firewood production. Under certain conditions forage could be a secondary objective. Coppice forests can be grazed only when sprouts grow beyond the reach of animals, especially goats. The existing rule-of-thumb applied by the Forest Service, is when the young sprouts achieve a height of about 3 metres or a Diameter Breast Height (DBH) of 3-5 cm is a sensible one. In these forests, grazing should be used to reduce the number of sprouts per stump and unit area thus favouring some of them to grow tall and fast. Such management can speed up the process of converting coppice to high forests. A typical case of this category is the oak forest. The stocking rate again should be equal to grazing capacity. Under the ANFI project, forests that fall into this category belong to classes 1, 2, 5, 11 and 12. They amount to 627,271 ha or 62% of all forests.

Lopped trees. Lopping of forest trees, especially deciduous oaks, is a traditional practice in Albania, still widespread all over the country. Although the lopped branches provide both foliage to the animals and firewood to the people, the quality of the feed is not very high and the manpower involved is considerable. In addition, lopping prevents trees from providing acorns for regeneration in both high and coppice forests. In the long run, the foliage produced by lopping should be replaced by other kinds of feed of higher quality produced on arable land (e.g. lucerne) or by higher quality foliage of trees established artificially as fodder shrub plantations with Robinia pseudoacacia, Morus alba and Medicago arborea.

Shrublands. The primary objective in management of shrublands should be forage production with firewood production a secondary one. These areas are the primary grazing lands for goats and they receive a very high pressure in most districts of the country. A number of reports prepared by experts from various international organizations involved in forestry development of Albania have already stressed the need to allocate shrublands to livestock in a sylvopastoral management context. Shrublands are either dominated by evergreen species such as Arbutus unedo, Erica sp., Quercus coccifera, Phillyrea latifolia, etc. or by deciduous species such as Carpinus orientalis, Cornus mas, Fraxinus ornus, etc. or both. The co-existence of evergreen and deciduous shrub species is quite widespread in the coastal and central parts of Albania. Under the ANFI project, the forests falling into this category are classes 19, 20, 21, 22 and 23. They amount to 150,705 ha or 14% of the forest area. Under proper grazing management, animals including goats can not fully control the growth of shrubs. For this reason, livestock production in these areas should be combined with firewood production.

Sylvopastoral systems
Open forests (high or coppice) with less than 0.4 crown density produce more forage than timber, so the primary objective in their management could be forage production with timber a secondary objective. Such forests should be managed as sylvopastoral systems, combining forage and wood production.
Plantations. There are several areas in Albania that were planted in the recent past with fast growing species, especially pines. These plantations are usually dense, allowing limited amounts of grazeable understorey vegetation. Nevertheless, they can be grazed to control this understorey and save them from wildfires since the majority of them consist of pines, which are very flammable. In new plantations, grazing should be deferred until the saplings reach a height beyond the reach of grazing animals (e.g. goats), which could be at least two metres.

Grazing capacity of forests. Grazing capacity is the maximum number of animals that can graze a pasture without impairing its productivity. That implies that grazing management of pasture should be sustainable, i.e. it should have the capacity to carry the same number of animals in the future as currently or even more. In order to achieve such an objective, part of the annual production should be left ungrazed to sustain productivity. This could be 40-60% of the annual forage production depending on pasture condition and the type of vegetation of the particular grazing land. For calculation of the grazing capacity (see Table 7), only the grazeable portion of forage production should be considered, namely the average dry matter production per unit area at the end of the growing season multiplied by the so called "proper use factor".
In the estimations of grazing capacity, if the total annual forage production is considered allowable this will result in excessive grazing of pastures and forest lands and in their eventual deterioration. In Table 8 only the grazeable portion is considered (i.e. the “proper use factor” was utilized) and the total grazing capacity for forests including woodlands and shrublands and excluding the high forests which are not to be grazed (350,762 ha) is estimated to total 10,656,813 SEUM (Shee