Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles

Latvia

By
Alexander Adamovich

1. Introduction

2. Soils and Topography

Soils

Topography

3. Climate and Agro-ecological Zones

Climate

4. Ruminant Livestock Production Systems

Beef and veal production

Sheep and Goats

Horses

Pig production

5. The Pasture Resource

6. Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources

7. Research and Development Organizations and Personnel

8. References

9. Contacts

1. INTRODUCTION

Latvia is a parliamentary republic, where the President is elected for a period of 4 years. This system was initially established on November 18, 1918. Both the Declaration of the Renewal of the Independence of the Republic of Latvia dated May 4, 1990 and the August 21, 1991 declaration re-establishing de facto independence, proclaimed the authority of the Satversme (Constitution). The highest legislative body in Latvia is the one-chamber Saeima (Parliament), whose 100 deputies are elected for four years in direct, proportionally representative elections by citizens 18 years of age and over. The Head of State is the President of the Republic and he/she is elected by the Parliament. The President appoints the Prime Minister who leads the government (Cabinet of Ministers).

Fig. 1.1 The Cabinet of Ministers

Latvia lies on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea and between 55° and 58° North and 20° and 28° East; its area 64 589 km² of which 38% is considered agricultural land and 44% forests. Since ancient times, with its coastline exceeding 500 km and easily accessible ports, Latvia has been a significant link between the states surrounding the Baltic Sea and Russia. The Baltic Sea has always been of great importance in its political, economic and cultural life. The overall length of Latvia's boundaries exceeds 1 800 km, 1 350 km of which is land border. Latvia is bounded by Estonia (337 km) - on the north, Lithuania (576 km) - on the south, Russia (292 km) and Byelorussia (171 km) - on the east The longest straight distance from North to South is 210 km and from East to West 450 km. The length of the Baltic coast line – 495 km.

Fig. 1.2 Location of Latvia [Click to view full map]

Among the independent European states only Denmark, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Belgium, Albania and Estonia as well as eight tiny countries are smaller. The total population is 2 319 100 (2004), of which 29.2% is rural (According to World Factbook the July 2006 population estimate was 2,274,735 with a growth rate of -0.67%). The economically active population is 1 400 000. Population density is 36.6 inhabitants/km². The capital of Riga has a population of 806 000 in 2003 which constitutes 34.1 % of the total. Administratively, it is divided into 26 districts (496 municipalities) and 26 district towns. District self-government is an administration of a district, which shall, through the mediation of Council (a representation delegated by local (pagast) self-governments) and institutions formed by the Council perform the functions stipulated in the law. The largest cities are: Daugavpils (117 000), Liepaja (96 000), Jelgava (71 000), Jurmala (59 300), Ventspils (50 400), Rezekne (42 900).

Fig. 1.3 Territorial subdivision of Latvia into districts

The official state language: Latvian belongs to the Baltic language group of the Indo-European language family. It is one of the two still living Baltic languages, the other one being Lithuanian. Latvian is the native language of about 1 690 000 people in the Republic of Latvia. Additionally, 260 000 in Lithuania, 20 000 in the republics of the former USSR and 95 000 people abroad speak Latvian as a first or second language. The language has developed on the basis of the geographical closeness of its nationalities (Selonians, Semigallians, Couronians, Latgallians). Traditionally three main dialects have been distinguished - the Central dialect (the basis for the literary language), the High (or East) dialect and the dialect of the Livs. The nationalities: custom nationality Latvians-56.5%; Russians-30.4%; Byelorussian, Ukrainian, Polish – 9.7%, other nationalities – 3.4 per cent. Religion: Protestants - 29.8%, Roman Catholic-49.2%, Russian Orthodox –14.5%, Jews – 3.9%, Anglicans-1.8%, others – 0.8 per cent.

Though several years have elapsed since the 2000 Population Census was conducted, the all-round and comprehensive information provides the basis for ever new aspects characterising the population. This time detailed information is provided on the place of birth and nationality of the Latvian population.

Fig. 1.4 AprikiChurch

Fig. 1.5 Aglona Basilica

Data from the population census show that 1 938 000 or 81.5% of the population were born in Latvia and only 435 000 or 18.3% born in other countries. For 0.2% of population there is no information on their birthplace according to the census data.

Fig. 1.6 Latvian population by birthplace, per cent of all population (Prepared by Population Statistics Division)

The issue of national adherence is very important in the country. Although the naturalisation process goes on, only 1.77 million or 74.5% of the resident population were nationals of the Republic of Latvia. 504 000 thousand or 21.2% were Latvian non-citizens. Only a small part of the Latvia population, i.e. 103 000 persons or 4.3% were nationals of other, mainly European countries. The number of foreign nationals involves citizens of more than 100 different countries. 73% of all foreign nationals are citizens of the former USSR without any other nationality obtained. Almost 19% of foreign nationals were from the Russian Federation.

The country joined the European Union in May 2004. The national currency is the Latvian Lat –LVL (1 lat = 100 Santim =1.42 EUR).

Fig. 1.7 Gauja national park

Latvia has a wide variety of plants and animals – total approved ~ 27,700 species: animal – 18,045 (the greatest part consists of invertebrate, mainly insect), plant – 2,434, lichen – 492, fungi – 4,000, algae(seaweed) – 2,680.

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Soils
Soils of Latvia compared to other soil regions, provinces and states have a wide range of distinct specific traits. They are mainly determined by parent material, its peculiar mineralogical and chemical composition, and presence of carbonates. Climate, vegetation cover, textural and chemical composition as well as origin of parent material, character of its bedding, bulk density and water-air regime are the factors determining soil genesis.

Latvia is in a humid and moderate climatic region with rainfall exceeding evaporation (soil moisture coefficient > 1) resulting in a percolating moisture regime in the soil. The form of Latvia with its sea coast allows the Atlantic air masses to penetrate the land. Latvia is affected by the warm currents of the Gulf Stream system, and their effect is enhanced by the prevailing westerly winds, carrying the Ocean's moisture and warmth to Latvia. The mean annual temperature is 6.6 ⁰C in Southern Latvia (town Liepaja) and 4.2 ⁰C in Northern Latvia (town Aluksne). The mean annual rainfall ranges from 550 to 600 mm in the lowlands and from 700 to 800 mm in the highlands. The climate of Latvia favours leaching of Automorphic soils, podzol-formation; water accumulation on less permeable soil layers results in soil gleying, bog formation and development of Semihydromorphic and Hydromorphic soils.

The most productive soils of Latvia have been formed on clayey parent materials enriched with carbonates (2 - 20 %), such as moraines, hydrogenic deposits, alluvial and deluvial drifts. Many soils essentially contain no carbonates, being leached out from the upper soil. The soil-forming process has been affected by parent material in two parts; topsoil is usually of coarser textural composition compared to subsoil, which is resistant to water retention resulting in pseydogleying (contactgleying) and bog formation.

Automorphic soils occur on hilly topography and in sites with good ground water retention; gleysolic, mucky-humus gley soils and bog soils are dominant in areas with low topography and poor water retention; flood-lands of river valleys are characteristic of alluvial soils. Recently, 41 percent of the total land area is under forests. Deciduous trees and grasses are dominant on parent materials higher in carbonates and plant nutrients. Organic material derived mainly from leaves, twigs, and woody material is accumulated on and in the soil; active calcium neutralizes organic acids and retards leaching out of soils and podzol-forming process. Humification, stabilization of humus status in soil and sod-forming result in the most productive soils of Latvia - Sod-calcareous and Brown soils.

Mixed coniferous/deciduous forests are prevalent on non-carbonate parent materials which are lower in plant nutrients and do not contain carbonates. Acid forest litter favours leaching of soils and podzol-formation, resulting in development of Podzolic soils in dry sites and Podzolic-gleyish soils in locations with higher moisture content. Organic matter with low degree of decomposition is accumulated as the result of anaerobic processes in waterlogged areas with prolonged saturation as well as in overgrowing water basins. Available plant nutrients are fixed in little decomposed organic matter, and plants are deficient in mineral nutrients. Due to this, bog vegetation - moss and sphagnum - are dominant resulting in the development of Organic soils.

Major soil improvement methods in Latvia are: drainage and reclamation, liming, build up of humus, fertilizer use, subsoiling, levelling and clearing the fields of boulders, soil erosion control.

According to their hydrothermic properties, Latvian soils are divided into three classes: Automorphic, Semihydromorphic and Hydromorphic. Automorphic soils develop in well drained sites with good water retention, and are usually associated with a deep groundwater table. Due to good decomposition of organic matter under aerobic conditions, these soils are not high in humus.

Development of Automorphic soils is characterized by some peculiarities concerning parent material and processes going on in the soil. Composition of parent material is really diverse: limnoglacial and clay deposits are most widespread in Latvia. Textural peculiarities and processes going on in soils of Latvia are not characteristic to podzol forming processes due to diverse parent material: parent material consists of two parts (the soil strata are composed of two layers) with water impermeable clay layer in lower soil horizons and seasonal upper surface gleying. It is usually determined by geological factors and processes going on in soil, and complex formations of geological factors. Distinct surface gleying of silt loam and clay soils is associated with temporary or prolonged saturation with water in spring and autumn. Most widespread upper surface gleying is the main process going on in soils of Latvia. Percolating water regime is limited to a great extent due to heavy textural composition of soils; it occurs only on sandy parent material. On the whole, processes of soil surface gleying essentially affect genesis of soils promoting or preventing other processes going on in soil. It should be noted that Sod-pseudogley soils with neutral or even alkaline reaction and high in free carbonates in the middle part of a profile were classified as Sodpodzolic contactgleyed soils by a number of researchers from Dokuchaev Institute of Soil Science. Brown soils occur in the southern part of the Zemgale Plain under broadleaf forests and rich grass vegetation. Frequently these soils have developed on limnoglacial and moraine materials. This region is characterized by the lowest mean annual rainfall - 450 to 500 mm and the highest cumulative active temperatures - 2100° C to 2400° C.

The moderate humid and mild maritime climate of Latvia favours the development of Brown soils in particular areas. Podzol-forming processes do not occur due to intensive biological turnover of nutrients and accumulation of basic cations when carbonates have been leached from the upper soil horizons. A qualitative new process of Brown soil development starts which is characteristic with intensive weathering of parent materials and development of clay in situ. Stability of Brown soil development and fertility of these soils are determined by high saturation with calcium and other basic cations. This process is favoured by chemically rich parent material. Brown soils are the most fertile Latvia forest soils with thick humus layers. In the next stages of development Brown soils are moving into Brown lassie soils due to differentiation of the upper soil horizons. Chemical composition of the silt fraction is stable in all horizons of Brown leached soils.

According to the soil classification system the following soils belong to Automorphic soils: Sod-calcareous soils, Brown soils, Podzolic soils, Podzols, Weakly developed soils, Eroded soils, Anthrosols.

Sod-calcareous soils are not widely distributed in Latvia. They mainly occur on flat topography in Zemgale. Most frequently they are found in fields and under forests. Primarily they have developed on parent material containing carbonates as well as on limnoglacial deposits, moraine, gravel, dolomites, limestone etc. The sod-forming process is associated with intensive humus development and accumulation of biogenic (N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, etc.) elements in the upper soil horizon. Under natural conditions it is typical under grasses and deciduous forest vegetation. Carbonates and basic cations neutralize acids in the soil and prevent leaching and podzol-forming processes. Sod-calcareous soils are slightly leached out, comparatively high in humus content and plant nutrients. These soils have distinct texture. Sod-calcareous soils belong to the most productive soils of Latvia.

Brown soils are not widely distributed in Latvia. They mainly occur on flat topography in the Southern part of Zemgale and under forests in Kurzeme. Brown soils have developed on diverse, chemically rich parent materials, most frequent on limnoglacial and moraine sandy loom which are low in carbonates. Development of Brown soils is characterized by the intensive weathering of primary silica minerals and formation of clayey minerals in situ. Due to intensive biological circulation of substances on parent materials which contain carbonates, development of Brown soils is going on resulting in loess soils which develop even into Podzolic soils. Brown soils are among the most fertile soils in Latvia.

Podzolic soils are the most widespread in Latvia - approximately 50 % of the total land area including arable land. They occur mostly in fields and under forests in all soil regions of Latvia, even to some extent in Zemgale. Podzolic soils have developed on diverse parent materials, most often on coarse textured parent materials that once were calcareous but now at a depth above 60 cm carbonates have been weathered and leached out. Podzolic soils have developed under the influence of podzol-forming processes. It results in weathering of primary and secondary minerals under the influence of fulvic and other acids (oxalic, formic, citric) as well as under the influence of activities of microorganisms and the leaching out of products of weathering of the upper soil horizons.

Podzols occur mainly under coniferous and mixed forests on coarse textured parent materials. Soils are of low productivity and are devoted to afforestation.

Weakly developed soils and Eroded soils. Water erosion is most widespread in Latvia. It occurs on agricultural land with hilly topography. Wind erosion is insignificant in Latvia; it occurs on sandy structureless soils in the coastal regions. Soils are considered eroded if the upper soil horizons are removed and parent material is outcropping in the surface layer of the soil and where soil is under development again.

Anthrosols occur in minor areas where intensive activities by man have left an impact on natural soil-forming processes and soil genetic horizons. Intensive soil cultivation results in very cultivated soils. Recultivated soils, Technogenic soils and Buried soils are distributed among others. Buried soils are not only a result of activities by man; these soils may be developed naturally as, for example, deluvial material of "travelling dunes".

The development of Semihydromorphic soils is associated either with moderately high groundwater tables or periodic saturation with stagnant water. These soils are approximately one third of the total agricultural land. They occur in all soil regions of Latvia. Properties of these soils have been affected by sod-forming, gleying, podzol-forming and other processes of soil development.

Increased moisture content in Automorphic soils results in the development of Semihydromorphic soils with the process of gleying being dominant. At the initial stages of gleying some gley mottles are distinct; an increase of prominent mottles results in the development of the gleyed horizon and Gleysolic soils. Development of an overall continuous gley horizon results in Gleyish soils. The following types of gleying should be distinguished: bottom or ground gleying; upper (topsoil) gleying; pseudogleying or contactgleying; continuous all profile gleying. The following soil types of Semihydromorphic soils are distinguished: Gleyish soils, Podzolic-gleyish soils, Alluvial soils.

Gleyish soils occur in all soil regions of Latvia; most frequently on parent materials rich in carbonates or where the development of Gleyish soils is affected by mineralised waters containing calcium and magnesium bicarbonates. Sod-forming and gleying processes are dominant. According to the type of gleying (upper, ground, contactgleying) and degree of gleying (gleysolic, gley) as well as depending on soil organic matter content diverse Gleyish soils have been formed. These soils are relatively fertile soils, yet they are in need of drainage.

Podzolic-gleyish soils are widespread throughout the whole territory of Latvia. Most frequently these soils occur on coarse textured parent materials. These soils occur in meadows, grasslands and under forests. Podzolic-gleyish soils have developed as a result of sod-forming, podzol-forming and gleying processes. Commonly these soils have been formed from Podzolic soils under increased saturation with water. Depending on type and degree of gleying, and the organic matter content these soils are subdivided into several subtypes. Podzolic-gleyish soils are comparatively infertile soils with unfavourable agronomic traits; they are in need of overall soil improvement.

Alluvial soils. Distribution of these soils in Latvia is insignificant. These soils occur in former and existing river valleys, the coastal zone of shallow lakes, in areas flooded in spring or having been flooded some period ago. Commonly Alluvial soils occur in natural meadows and grasslands, and are extensive cultivated fields. These soils have derived from muddy silts. Diversity of Alluvial soils has developed depending on flood water streams, textural, humus and chemical composition of the silty alluvia. Deluvial soils also belong to this soil type.

Hydromorphic soils have developed under conditions of excessive moisture when the soil surface horizons are waterlogged. All Latvian bog soils belong to Hydromorphic soils. Bog lands are approximately 10 percent of the total land area. Major areas occur in Piejura Lowland and East Latvia Plain; insignificant areas occur in other Latvia soil regions; minor areas - in Zemgale Plain. Depending on botanical composition and plant nutrition regime we distinguish Low or Grass bogs (Lowland bog soils), Transitional bogs (Transitional bog soils) and Upland or Sphagnum bogs (Upland bog soils).

Lowland bog soils are approximately 50 % of the total bog area. These soils occur in almost all soil regions of Latvia: in meadows and grasslands, and under swampy forests. Formation of bogs is associated with Lowland bog soils due to nutrient-rich ground waters, waters of underground springs, and rivers. Lowland bog soil peat is usually black in colour, well decomposed, strongly mineralised, mostly loose, and slightly acid to neutral.

Transitional bog soils occur in rather insignificant areas: grasslands, meadows, under forests as well as at the margins of Upland bogs. At depths, nutrient-rich ground waters have a minor effect on plant nutrition; plants with low response to nutrients become widespread. Transitional bog soils are medium between Lowland bog soils and Upland bog soils both by bog vegetation and peat qualities.

Upland bog soils are approximately 42 % of the total bog area. These soils occur in Piejfira Lowland (Riga-Jelgava-Smarde), North Vidzeme, East Latvia and elsewhere, mainly in lowlands and plains. These soils have derived from plants having low response to mineral substances, primarily from sphagnum which feed on rainfall and air dust. Sphagnum grow rapidly; the cupola-shaped bog surface is slightly elevated in the vicinity. Upland bogs are usually covered with sphagnum, but marsh tea (Ledum palustre), heather (Calluna vulgaris and Erica spp.), blueberries (Vaccinium myrtilis), c1oudberries (Rubus chamaemorus), cranberries (Vaccinium oxycoccus) and pines (Pinus spp.) may also grow on them. Sphagnum peat is reddish brown and little decomposed. The thickness of peat deposits may even reach up to 10 m. Bog materials are acid or extremely acid; they are relatively low in ash (2-5 %), nitrogen (1-2 %), CaO (0.2-0.4 %) and P₂O₅ (0.05-0.15 %). These soils are not recommended for cultivation; they are little used in agriculture.

Source: Karlis Bambergs, Rainis Skujans, Henrihs Mezals, Latvia University of Agriculture

Topography
Latvia is located on the level north-western edge of the East European Plain which has only slight variations in elevation. The average altitude is only about 10 - 25 metres and maximum local relief is about 90 metres. The highest point - Gaizinskalns Hill (312 m above sea level) is situated on the Vidzeme Upland in the central part of East Latvia. Most upland is island-shaped, with bedrock cores which rise up to 312 metres. Detailed topographic morphological research showed two levels of glacial topography. Uplands and lowlands must be differentiated from relief articulation, i.e. plains, rolling, and hummock relief. They are considered to be large scale relief landforms or macroforms. Flat, rolling, plains and hilly areas are finer taxonomic units or mesoforms, which characterize the brokenness of the surface within each macroform.

Fig. 2.1 Historical territorial subdivision of Latvia into Regions [Click to view full map]

The uplands of eastern Latvia (Aluksne, Vidzeme, Latgale and Augszeme) are higher than in the west and north (Northern, Western and Eastern Kursa and Sakala). On the up-glacier side of the insular and marginal uplands of eastern Latvia the boundary of the uplands with the lowlands is marked by the 85 - 90 metre contours, but on the down-glacier (southern) side of highlands 125 - 135 metre contours. The boundary with the radial type of highlands in western and northern Latvia is along the base of the active ice contact slope, and in general corresponds to the 50 - 60 metre contour interval. Towards the south it increases to 80 - 90 metres above sea level. The insular and marginal uplands are characterized by a thick Quaternary cover (more than 40 metres, maximum thickness 80-160 metres in the central part of the deposits). They consist of primary massifs and areas of plateau-like large hills, morainic and cupola-like hills of medium size and hilly ridges. In the radial type uplands intermediate thickness (20-40 metre, maximum up to 80 metre ) of Quaternary cover predominates. The massifs of morainic and cupola-like hills of medium and small size, as well as, elongated hilly ridges and rolling plains are very common in these areas.

Glaciated lowlands, characterized by rolling or flat relief, are underlain by elongated and broad bedrock or sub-Quaternary depressions. In the territory of lowlands the bedrock surface is covered by a thin, in average up to 10 metre, cover of Quaternary deposits. In these areas along river valleys and the seashore, picturesque bluffs of sandstone and less frequently escarpments of dolomite are revealed. Otherwise the lowlands generally are most conducive to intensive agricultural activity.

Three glaciated lowland types are distinguished in Latvia:

• divergent type lowlands with drumlins and genetically related landforms –Northern Vidzeme, Central Latvia lowlands;
• consequent type lowlands with flutings and associated landforms - East-Latvian lowland;
• convergent type lowlands with crumlins (convergent drumlins) and related landforms - Middle Gauja and Mudava (Velikoretskaya) lowlands.

Source: Vitalijs Zelcs, University of Latvia

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Climate
In spite of Latvia’s small area there are important differences in climate between its four climatic zones:

• The coastal (Central) zone, covering 25% of the country, includes the Zemgales plain and the whole coastal region from Lithuania to Estonia. The average annual precipitation is 600 mm. The average temperature varies from –3 °C in January to 16.5 °C in July. Humidity is low. The growing season, when the average temperature during 24 hours is over 5 º C is 185 - 190 days.
• The Latgales (South-eastern) zone, covering 28%, includes the southeast of the country. The average annual precipitation is 700 mm. The average temperature varies from –7 °C in January to 17 °C in July. Humidity is high. The growing season is 185 - 190 days.
• The Vidzeme (North-eastern) zone, covering 30%, includes the north-eastern inland part of the country. The average annual precipitation is 700-850 mm. The average temperature varies from -7° C in January to 16.5 °C in July. Humidity is high. The growing season is 175 - 185 days.
• The Kurzeme (Western) zone, covering 17% of the country, includes the inland part of the Kurzeme peninsula. The average annual precipitation is 700-850 mm. The average temperature varies from -4° C in January to 16.5° C in July. There is medium humidity. The growing season is 190 - 195 days.

Fig. 3.1 Annual rainfall of Latvia [Click to view full map]

For agriculture, drainage is more important than irrigation. Over 90% of the agricultural land in Latvia can only be intensively cultivated if drained. The current climatic conditions are the continuation of the sub Atlantic climate. The form of Latvia with its long sea coast and surrounding Baltic sea allows oceanic influences to penetrate to the interior of the land. Latvia is characterized by relatively mild winters and cool summers.

For its latitude, Latvia has a peculiar temperature regime since the maritime temperate climate in the western part is transitional to a more continental one in the eastern part. The climate is characterized by moderately cold winters, while summers are moderately hot. The mean January temperature ranges from –3 °C to –7 °C in coastal regions. The period with the lowest temperatures lasts up to February 20 - February 25 in the western and central regions; in the eastern regions this period lasts till March 1 - March 5. Springs drag on, and are relatively cool. Latvian summers are cool and rainy. The mean July temperature rises to 16 °C – 17 °C. Variations in temperature are determined by relief and occurrence of water basins. The westerly winds crossing Latvia determine weather: the temperature of the coolest month drops below 10 °C and seldom remains for a prolonged period, while maxima in summer does not exceed 20 ⁰C. Mean annual winter temperatures range from +5 °C to –5 °C in coastal regions; in eastern regions temperatures do not exceed –15 ⁰C in winter, and rise to +30 °C in summer.

The mean annual rainfall levels of Latvia are rather diverse: 550 – 600 mm average. Rainfall is generally higher in hilly regions, with slopes facing moist air masses: in the western slopes of Vidzeme Upland (700-800 mm), and western slopes of Kurzeme Upland (650-700 mm), while rainfall decreases on eastern slopes.

Table 3.1 Average annual precipitation and air temperature
Meteorological	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
station
				Precipitation, mm
Bauska	31	27	28	45	45	61	79	66	64	54	51	43	594
Dauvgavpils	33	30	32	41	56	73	86	80	62	51	48	39	631
Jelgava	37	32	31	41	50	65	83	73	62	58	53	44	629
Priekuli	31	24	28	41	56	77	96	88	82	68	58	41	690
Riga	33	27	27	42	44	62	85	70	75	61	56	45	627
Ventspils	56	38	38	37	42	46	62	77	77	74	74	66	687
				Air temperature, °c
Bauska	-5.5	-5.2	-1.6	5.2	11.6	15.2	17.0	16.2	11.7	6.7	1.6	-2.7	5.9
Daugavpils	-6.4	-6.3	-2.3	5.2	12.0	15.8	17.1	16.0	11.3	6.2	0.9	-3.3	5.5
Jelgava	-4.8	-4.8	-1.2	5.4	11.5	15.4	16.8	16.0	11.7	6.8	1.8	-2.2	6.0
Priekuli	-6.2	-5.9	-2.1	4.4	10.9	14.5	16.7	15.7	11.1	5.6	0.5	-3.5	5.1
Riga	-4.9	-4.6	-1.2	5.1	11.0	15.1	16.9	16.3	12.0	7.0	1.7	-2.0	6.0
Ventspils	-2.8	-3.1	-0.7	4.1	9.1	13.2	16.4	16.1	12.6	7.8	3.1	-0.6	6.3
Source: Karlis Bambergs, Latvia University of Agriculture

Much of the rain (70 %) falls in April - October. Maximum rainfall (>100 mm) occurs in August. Rainfall is lower in spring.

Precipitation, as constant snow cover, occurs in December 30-January 5, but already from December 15 in eastern regions. Early March is the beginning of snow melting in Western Latvia; in the eastern regions it occurs in late March, and in early April in the regions of Vidzeme Central Upland. The thickness of the snow blanket exceeds 30 cm in the most part of the territory of Latvia; in eastern regions with hilly topography the snow cover is 40-50 cm deep.

The soil is frozen 20-30 cm under the snow cover in coastal regions; the depth of frozen soil exceeds 40 cm in central regions, and in eastern regions its depth ranges from 40 to 60 cm. The depth of frozen soil layer may exceed 1 metre in extremely severe winters; in eastern regions it is up to 1.20 metres deep.

Westerly and south-westerly winds prevail in Latvia, although other winds may occur between years and seasons as well. The strength of the winds is insignificant: 2-5 m/s., but in autumns may exceed 35 m/s. and 20 m/s. in coastal regions and inland, respectively. The vegetation growth period starts in April, when average daily temperature reaches 5 ^oC. Intensive crop growing starts with the active vegetation period. This earliest possible date for this period is May 5 and is common for South-East Latvia, and the latest – for Kurzeme coastal line due to the cooling influence of the Baltic Sea.

River basins and surface water resources. Depending on physical and geographical conditions, a large part of the river discharge comes from either snow melt, groundwater or direct surface runoff. About 50-55% of the waters of the Daugava, Venta, Lielupe and Musa rivers is melted snow, while for the Gauja and Amata rivers it is 35-40%. About 10-20% of the flow of some tributaries of the Lielupe (Memele and Svete) and the Aiviekste tributary of the Daugava is fed by groundwater, while for the Daugava and Gauja rivers it is 35-40%. In the Kurzeme peninsula and in the middle uplands, direct surface runoff accounts for 40% of flow of the rivers, while in the Zemgales plain it represents 20-30%.

The Daugava basin has a total area of 87 900 km², of which 28% is located in Latvia. The Daugava River rises in the Russian Federation, flows through Belarus (where it is called the Western Dvina), enters Latvia in the southeast and flows northwest to the Gulf of Riga. Several tributaries enter the Daugava River inside Latvian territory, including four large ones: Ogre, Aiviekste, Dubna and Rezekne.

The Gauja basin has a total area of 8 900 km², of which 88% is in Latvia. The Gauja River rises in the Vidzeme upland and flows east, then turns northwest, becomes the border between Latvia and Estonia for a short distance, and then flows southwest to the Gulf of Riga.

The Salaca basin covers the north of the country, near the border with Estonia. Its total area is 3 600 km², of which 92% is located in Latvia. The Salaca River rises in Lake Burtnieks in the north and flows west to the Gulf of Riga.

The Lielupe basin has a total area of 17 600 km², of which 50% is situated in Latvia. The Lielupe River rises in Lithuania, enters Latvia in the south and flows north to the Gulf of Riga through the most fertile regions of the country. It has many tributaries, the most important being the Memela, Jecava and Svete.

The Venta basin has a total area of 11 800 km², of which 67% is situated in Latvia. The Venta River rises in Lithuania, enters Latvia in the southwest and flows north through the Kurzeme lowland to the Baltic Sea. The Venta has many tributaries, but only one of them, the Abava River, exceeds 100 km in length.

The coastal basins between Lithuania and the Venta have a total area of 5 100 km². This area includes rivers such as the Barta, Durba, Riva and Uzava, which flow to the Baltic Sea.

The basins within the coastal lowland, on the opposite shores of the Gulf of Riga have a combined area of 3 800 km². This area includes rivers such as the Irbe, Stonde, Roja, Svetupe and Vitupe.

The Velika basin consists of a number of smaller rivers flowing into the Velika in the Russian Federation. Its area within Latvia is 3 200 km². The total discharge of the Velika amounts to 4.2 km³/year, of which 16% is generated within Latvia.

Lakes. There are about 2 250 lakes with a total area of about 850 km². About 36% of them are located in the Latgales upland in the southeast of the country.

Cattle numbers and average productivity: historically the dairy sector has always been a priority agricultural sector in Latvia which has favourable conditions from the climatic and soil aspects; compared to other sectors of agriculture dairying had the highest employment indicators.

During the last 10 years during transition to the market economy there was a significant downturn in milk production which affected both the volume of milk production and the structure of dairy farms. In recent years, however, a trend to medium-sized dairy farms with 15-100 cows and modern technology has become quite apparent.

The number of cows (Table 4.1) and the overall milk production level have stabilised in recent years. Thus the average productivity of dairy cows in the reference period (2001-2003) was comparatively stable reaching the level of 4 261 kg per cow in 2003 (Table 4.2).

According to the data of the Latvian State Domestic Animal Pedigree Information Data Processing Centre (SPDPC), until 1 January 2004, there were 389 639 cattle registered in Latvia, of which 218 008 were dairy cows.

The dairy herd is mostly composed of Latvian brown cows – 70 % of the recorded cows with average milk-yield of 4 550 kg from a cow per year (Table 4.3). The Holstein cows constitute 15.6 % of the total number of the recorded cows. Analysing the data regarding the results of 2003 by breed cross-section, according to the SPDPC data, in the group of red breed cows the Angler has had the best indices with an average milk-yield of 5 515 kg, content of milk fats 3,23 % but this breed constitutes a negligible amount of the total recorded herds.

The introduction of the milk quota system, a fundamental basis for the Common Market Organisation in the dairy sector, is based on the information drawn from the milk producers' register, which will help remodel the milk market of Latvia. The future development of the Latvian dairy sector depends on the introduction and implementation of the elements of the Common Market Organisation.

Beef and veal production
Latvia is well suited to producing beef and veal. The national aim is reaching the self-sufficiency level and quality improvement and the grassland and fodder base is in place. Beef production is mainly a by-product of dairy-farming.

Beef and veal amounts to 29.8 % of the meat produced. According to the data, the amount of the meat produced and consumed in 2003 has increased. The amount of carcass weight has increased by 1.3 times, but the consumption by 1.1 times.

In relation to pork, the consumption of beef in Latvia is considerably lower. Thus the consumption of beef and meat products (converting to meat) was 27.26 thousand tons, correspondingly, the consumption of pork was 66.16 thousand tons or by 2.4 times more.

Meat production mainly takes place in farms, household plots and private subsidiary holdings. The structure of beef producing farms is still fragmented, but the number of holdings with more than 500 animals is increasing.

Sheep and Goats
During the last two years the number of sheep has increased gradually and their previous rapid fall in numbers has ceased. The aim in sheep farming is to preserve the genetic diversity, renewal of the herd, development of wool production and increase the trade in meat. Sheep and goats are mainly kept in household plots and private holdings. The average wool clip from a sheep is 3.9 kg.

The production of mutton and goat meat is best suited to small farms. There is a demand for lamb the live weight of which is 35 – 50 kg.

Goats in Latvia are raised for milk, and cull animals are used for meat. According to the Central Statistics Bureau, in 2003, there was 214 tons of milk produced from 5 823 goats in homesteads, milking 432 litres from a goat on average per year.

Horses
Horse rearing in Latvia is performed in accordance with the aims specified in a breeding programme based on the acquisition of high-value animals, the preservation and improvement of the genetic type, by using selected breeding material and by enhancing the horse recording.