Morocco

by

By O. Berkat and M. Tazi

1. Introduction

2. Soils and Topography

3. Climate and Agro-ecological Zones

4. Ruminant Livestock Production Systems

5. The Pasture Resource

6. Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources

7. Research and Development Organizations and Personnel

8. References

9. Contacts

[The graphics and data in this profile have been provided by the authors and the designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries].

1. INTRODUCTION

The Kingdom of Morocco is situated in the north west of the continent of Africa, between latitudes 21° - 36º N and longitudes 1° - 17º W. The country is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean on the West (2,934 km from Cap Spartel in the North to Lagwira in the South), the Mediterranean sea on the North (512 km from Saidia in the East to Cap Spartel in the West). It is bordered in the East and South by Algeria and Mauritania, respectively (see Figure 1). The total land area is 710,850 sq km of which arable land is less than 12 percent (Ministère de l’Agriculture et du Développement Rural 2003). 

Figure 1. Map of Morocco

[FAO Editorial Note: the status of Western Sahara remains unresolved and was the subject of a proposed UN Agreement on the Status of Western Sahara in 2001].

According to the 1994 census, the population was 26,100,000. The population growth rate during the 1984-94 period was 2.06 percent, lower than the 2.6 percent recorded in 1974-84. Presently, the population growth rate is 1.7 percent. Population estimates for 2002 and 2003 were 29,630,000 and 31,600,000, respectively and according to the World Factbook the population in July 2006 was estimated at 33,241,259 with a growth rate of 1.55%.

Most of the population is concentrated in the north-western areas. Urbanization is over 50 percent presently, contrasting strongly with a level of 30 percent in 1970. Large cities include Casablanca (3.1 million) which is the largest industrial, commercial and financial centre, Rabat-Salé (1.2 million) which is the capital, Marrakech, Fès, Méknès, Tétouan, Oujda and Agadir each have hundreds of thousands of inhabitants.

The country’s history is very ancient as attested by numerous prehistoric and historic monuments and artefacts. In historical time, the country has seen a number of invaders and civilisations: Phoenicians, Berber, Carthaginians, Romans, Vikings. The Arab conquest came in 681.

Morocco exists, as a state, since 788, when the Idris the First was proclaimed king. The subsequent dynasties were:

• Idrisside (788-1055, foundation of Fes which is part of the UNESCO Universal Heritage),
• Almoravide (1055-1130, foundation of Marrakech with the Place Jamaa Lafna also part of Universal Heritage),
• Almohade (1130-1258, Foundation of the Capital City of Rabat, construction of Koutoubia and its twin the Giralda of Sevillia),
• Merinide (1258-1554, construction of Chellah Necropolis in Rabat),
• Saadian (1554-1664, Saadian tombs in Marrakech, plants for processing sugar from cane and exports to Europe, end to the Portuguese occupation of some coastal places), Alaouite (1664-Present).

Morocco gained its independence from both the French (Central and Southern zones) and the Spanish (Northern zone) in 1956. At the same time the City of Tangiers, which was under International Rule, was recovered. The Southern Saharan Provinces were recovered in 1975 [although the status of  Western Sahara remains unresolved and was the subject of  a proposed UN Agreement on the Status of Western Sahara in 2001 – Editorial Note].

Agriculture is the backbone of the economy since it contributes 17 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and provides employment to half of the active labour force. It has benefited as a priority investment sector by the Government during the last four decades. As a result of this policy, 92 large dams have been built with a total capacity of 14 billion cubic metres. This and other smaller infrastructure, has allowed the irrigation of some 1,200,000 hectares. Major irrigated areas are the Rharb and Loukkos in the NW, the Tadla in the centre north of the Atlas, the Haouz in the Marrakech region, the Souss-Massa in the Agadir region, the Ouarzazate and Tafilalet south of the Atlas, and the Low Moulouya in the Northeast.

However, agricultural production varies with the weather conditions and most crops are grown by subsistence farmers, but a modernized sector produces food for export. The main products include wheat, barley, pulses, vegetables, citrus fruit, olives and olive oil, figs, and dates. Agricultural exports include vegetables, citrus, olive oil and wine. Animal products are consumed locally, except for processed leather.

Fisheries is another important sector as it represents 55 percent of agricultural food exports and maintains some 400,000 jobs. Handicrafts contribute 10 percent to the GDP and offers jobs to about 1,500,000 people.

Tourism is of growing importance to the economy. With 2,500,000 tourists in 1999, it contributes 7.8 percent to the GDP, and helps maintain about 500,000 jobs.

Mining and energy represent 10 percent of the GDP. Morocco has the world’s third largest deposits of phosphate, but a stagnant market and lower world prices have reduced the contribution made by this previously important export earner.

A small manufacturing sector is growing and bringing export revenues. Consumer goods and semi-finished goods now account for about half of Morocco’s export earnings.

About 15 per cent of the labour force works abroad, mainly in European countries such as Belgium and France, and the money these workers send back to Morocco helps to offset the country’s large foreign debt.

In an effort to stimulate economic growth, the government is selling more than a hundred state-owned enterprises and encouraging other economic reforms.

Land Area, Arable and Pastoral Areas. Land classification in Morocco shows that 78 percent of the area (56,000,000 ha) is in desert and dry zones (annual average precipitation <250 mm/year), 15 percent (10,000,000 ha) in the semi arid zone (250 to 500 mm rainfall per annum) and 7 percent in the sub-humid to humid zones (> 500 mm rain per year). Arable land and permanent crops represent 12 percent (9,200,000 ha) of the land area, of which 1,200,000 ha are irrigated, 12.5 percent (5,800,000 ha) is forest, and 52,900,000 ha are rangelands and unproductive lands (Table 1).

Of the total cereal area, which covers 80 percent of arable land, 50 percent is sown to barley, 40 percent to bread and durum wheat and 9 percent to maize. Four percent of the arable land is sown to pulses, mainly fava bean, chickpeas, lentils and peas. The area under weedy fallow varies between 1,600,000 and 2,600,000 hectares and is more prevalent in the drier zones.

The Ruminant Sector. Generally, it is considered that only 18 percent of farmers gain their incomes solely from animal husbandry, but livestock constitutes a significant financial reserve for the majority of farmers, in particular for those who have difficult access to agricultural loans. It also ensures the production of manure necessary for the fertilization of the land and to yield improvement (mainly vegetables and citrus orchards). It is also used as draught power; it supplies the necessary raw materials (wool, skin, leather) to the leather and the craft industries, and plays a role in the transport of goods and of man (dromedaries in the south, mules in the mountains and horses and donkeys in the plain) It is also necessary to underline its socio-cultural role (horse and Fantasia, sheep and Eid El Adha).

There are about 2 700 000 cattle, 17 000 000 sheep and 5 300 000 goats in the country, in addition to 200 000 camels (FAO database only 36,000), 510 000 mules and 980 000 asses, producing some 300 000 tonnes of meat (with chicken and game meat the total is near to 600,000 tonnes) and more than 1.35 million metric tonnes of milk (Table 2). Up until 2000 Morocco imported more than 10-15,000 live cattle per year as well as 10 M chickens but numbers have declined as have beef and veal imports. Milk and milk product imports have increased from less than 200,000 M tonnes milk equivalents in the 1980s to nearly 400,000 tonnes in 2003/2004.

The Crop Sector. Farms are rather small (Table 3). Of the 1,500,000 holdings, the size classes are as follows: i) 4.3 percent are landless, very probably only keeping livestock; ii) more than 70 percent have less than 5 hectares; iii) only 4 percent have more than 20 hectares. The small farm size generally leads to diversified production (cereals, vegetables, livestock) but also to low income levels and high vulnerability to market forces and drought events.

In the agricultural sector, livestock production ranks second after cereals. It provides approximately 20 percent of the total of agricultural employment and contributes to the income of more than 80 percent of the rural population, especially small farmers. It also plays an important role in mitigating the impact of droughts. Of the 1.5 million farms in 1996, 1.1 million had a livestock production component (Table 4).

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

According to MARA (1986), the main forage sources in Morocco were: i) natural pastures; ii) stubble and straw; iii) sown fodder; iv) fallow; v) crop residues; vi) cereal grain; vii) industrial by-products. Their respective estimated contribution to the forage budget was 28 percent; 38 percent, 10 percent, 6 percent, 2 percent, 7 percent and 8 percent. However, it is important to make a few comments about these numbers: i) the trend toward a decrease in the contribution of the natural pastures over the years is due to their degradation, to the recurrent drought, and to extension of crops on marginal lands which once were used as range; ii) these numbers are averages over the entire country, reflecting the importance of forage demand of cattle production systems and which are met mostly by on farm production.

Small ruminants, on the other hand, rely more on natural pasture (more than 70 percent in some regions); iii) these estimated averages vary according to weather conditions in any given year. Thus, in a dry year, relatively more resources are contributed by natural pasture (which also results in increased grazing pressure and degradation) and grains ( which puts increased pressure on the economics and stability of the farms, particularly the most vulnerable ones). During a wet year, important sources include increased cereal yields), fallows, and grain ( due to increased barley production and thus increased availability to animal feeding).

Rangeland ecosystems have been described and mapped for each zone (Berkat et al. 1992). The number of such ecosystems (scale 1/ 2 500,000) is 29, 17, 13, 9, 5, 9, 1, 7, 12, 12, for the respective pastoral zones 1 to 10.

Figure 5. Pastoral Zones

Sources: MADRPM (2000)

Ecosystems of the Eastern High Plateaux and the Moulouya Valley
This zone extends over more than five million hectares. Thus, it is characterized by a climatic gradient and a diversity in soil and vegetation resources, even though the vegetation physionomic types are only a few: alfa steppes, low shrub steppes, woodlands and shrublands. The bioclimatic gradient extends from subhumid in the Debdou area in the North, to Saharan in the South (Bou Arfa 160 mm) and in the Moulouya valley to the West (Outat El Haj 157 mm). However, the largest proportion of the area is the arid bioclimate with cold winters (200 to 350 mm of annual rainfall). Dominant soils in the area are lithosols and regosols, but brown steppic and halomorphs are also present. Livestock production is based primarily on sheep, and secondarily on goats. Beef cattle have increased somewhat during the last two decades, but are still of limited importance.

Major range ecosystems are:
i)forest stands of the sub-humid bioclimate composed of Quercus rotundifolia, Juniperus oxycedrus, Stipa tenacissima, Rosmarinus officinalis. The low herbaceous strata include Dactylis glomerata, Festuca ovina and Koeleria vallesiana. This type covers about 140,000 hectares;

ii) woodlands of the semi-arid, composed of Callitris articulata, Pistacia lentiscus, Stipa tenacissima, Rosmarinus officinalis, Cistus villosus, Lavandula multifida, Dactylis glomerata, Artemisia herba-alba, extending over some 200,000 hectares;

iii) halophytic steppes composed of Salsola foetida, Atriplex halimus, Stipa capensis covering some 115,000 hectares;

iv) steppes of the arid bioclimate with cold winters, in fair to deteriorated condition composed of Anabasis aphylla, Noaea mucronata, Peganum harmala, Artemisia herba-alba, Stipa capensis, Frankenia corymbosa, covering some 880,000 hectares;

v) steppes of the arid bioclimate with temperate winters, in a fair condition, composed of Artemisia herba-alba, Frankenia corymbosa, Noaea mucronata, Teucrium polium, Stipa capensis, Stipa parviflora. This type covers some 290,000 hectares.

vi) steppes of the arid bioclimate with cold winters, in fair to good condition, composed of Artemisia herba-alba, Stipa parviflora, Stipa barbata, extending over some 190,000 hectares;

vii) steppes of the piedmonts composed of Stipa tenacissima, Rosmarinus officinalis, Artemisia herba-alba, Thymus spp., Stipa parviflora, Stipa barbata. This type covers some 330,000 hectares;

viii)) alfa (Stipa tenacissima) steppes on varying soil types and substrates, and in varying ecological conditions, associated with species such as Thymus sp., Noaea mucronata, Stipa parviflora, Atractylis seratuloides, Schismus barbatus, Artemisia herba-alba, Lygeum spartum. This type extends over 2,500,000 hectares. It provides an important forage reserve, albeit of low quality, especially in this zone characterized by long and severe drought events. It also provides invaluable soil protection when not degraded. However, the recurrence of droughts, along with maintaining too many animals by extensive use of concentrates has recently led to a large scale degradation of this resource;

ix) degraded steppes of arid to Saharan bioclimate in the middle Moulouya valley composed of Lycium intricatum, associated according to local ecological conditions with Helianthemum spp., Halogeton alopecuroides, Salsola gemmascens, Noaea mucronata, Atractylis serratuloides, Aristida spp., Hammada scoparia. This type covers some 420,000 hectares.

The Middle Atlas
This zone has an estimated area of range extending over 1,230,000 hectares. It is a mountain range in the centre of the country with a SW-NE direction. Three subdivisions can be distinguished according to topography and climate: 1) the tabular Middle Atlas, with elevations from 1 000 to 1 900 metres, with high rainfall; 2) the rugged middle Atlas, ranging from the semi-arid to the sub-humid; 3) the Khénifra area in the southwest, also ranging from the semi-arid to the sub-humid. Livestock production in this zone is based mostly on small ruminants.

Major ecosystems are:
i) woodlands of the piedmonts and temperate valleys which are composed of Callitris articulata, Juniperus phoenicea, Pistacia lentiscus, Olea europea, Phillyrea angustifolia. Species of the lower strata include Globularia alypum, Rosmarinus officinalis, Stipa tenacissima, S. parviflora. They extend over an estimated area of 185,000 hectares.

ii)  forests of the semi-arid to subhumid zones with a cold winter composed of Quercus rotundifolia, generally in dense stands, but with openings having a herbaceous vegetation including Dactylis glomerata, Bromus spp., Festuca spp., Cynosurus elegans. They cover an area estimated at 340,000 hectares;

iii) forests of the humid zone with a cold winter, composed of Quercus mirbeckei, Q. rotundifolia, Crataegus lacinita, Rosa sp., Cynosurus elegans, Dactylis glomerata, Arrhenatherum elatius. It extends over a relatively limited area (6,000 hectares);

iv)  forests of the subhumid and humid zones with a cold winter, composed of Cedrus atlantica, Acer monspessulanum, Quercus rotundifolia, and in the drier and colder parts Bupleurum spinosum and Erinacea anthyllis. This type covers an area of 180,000 hectares;

v)  forests of the sub-humid composed of Quercus suber, Arbutus unedo, Cistus spp., Halimium halimifolium, Dactylis glomerata, covering an area of approximately 15,000 hectares;

vi)  low shrublands of the humid zone composed of Adenocarpus boudyi, Genista pseudopilosa, Genista quadriflora, Festuca rubra, Hieracium pseudopilosella, extending over some 18,000 hectares;

vii)  mountain grasslands or turf, composed of Poa bulbosa, Dactylis glomerata, Stipa lagascae, Festuca rubra, Festuca ovina, Hieracium pseudopilosella, Scorzonera pygmea, Medicago suffruticosa, covering some 50,000 hectares;

viii))  mountain shrublands composed of spiny xerophytes such as Erinacea anthyllis, Cytisus purgans ssp. Balansae, Alyssum spinosum, associated with herbaceous species such as Stipa lagascae, Poa bulbosa, Festuca ovina, Festuca rubra, covering some 100,000 hectares.

The last three types are the most productive and also with the highest herbaceous plant diversity. They are grazed mostly by transhumant herds during June to October-November. 

The High Atlas
This notable mountain range is composed of a series of longitudinal crests with a SW-NE direction, between which are situated large depressions. Highest points are at 4,165 m (Jebel Toubkal), 4,070 m (Mgoun), Tignousti (3,819 m), Rhat (3,781 m), El Ayachi (3,700 m) and Azourki (3,677 m). Valleys are generally of a NS direction. Annual rainfall ranges from 500 mm to 800 mm on the northern slopes, and from 200 to 600 mm on south facing slopes, the driest part being the Southeastern part of the mountain. A portion of rainfall comes in the form of snow (about 20 days above 3,200 m) and a sizable portion comes in the form of intense summer storms, representing an important cause of erosion, and an important risk to agricultural land in the valleys. Soils are relatively diversified but localised because of steep slopes: rendzinas, brown forest soils, lithosols, regosols. However, because of steep slopes, the dominant soils are lithosols. This, along with a relatively high runoff and the nature of substrates (schists, marls), makes the ecosystems of the mountain relatively dry, less diversified than in the Middle Atlas for example. Further, as pastures, they are generally less productive (owing to the previously mentioned constraints, and a short growing season at altitudes above 1,800 m). Livestock production is based on small ruminants, mostly goats on rangelands and forests, and some cattle integrated to small farms on the terraces.

Major rangeland ecosystems are:
i)  woodlands of the piedmonts and valleys, with temperate winters, composed of Callitris articulata, Pistacia lentiscus, Ceratonia siliqua, Olea europea, Lavandula multifida. Variations with Juniperus phoenicea associated with Callitris articulata and Thymus satureoides are also found. The area is estimated at 280,000 hectares;

ii)  forests and woodlands at altitudes 1,400-1,800 metres, semi-arid with temperate winters, composed of Quercus rotundifolia, Juniperus phoenicea, Thymus spp., Globularia alypum, Dactylis glomerata, and locally Callitris articulata. The type extends over an approximate area of 370,000 hectares;

iii)  woodlands of the subhumid and semiarid, with cold winters, composed of Quercus rotundifolia, Pinus halepensis, or Juniperus phoenicea, Globularia spp., Thymus spp., covering an area over 160,000 hectares;

iv)  forests and woodlands of the subhumid, with cold winters, composed of Quercus rotundifolia, Cistus spp., Festuca spp., Dactylis glomerata. The area covered is estimated at 320,000 hectares;

v)  mountain grasslands of the high altitudes composed of Festuca maroccana, F. rubra, Scorzonera pygmaea, Nardus stricta, and Trifolium humile. This is a relatively productive ecosystem which extends over 85,000 hectares;

vi) high altitude shrublands composed of Vella mairei, Bupleurum spinosum, Alyssum spinosum, Festuca maroccana, Dactylis glomerata, with locally Juniperus thurifera, covering approximately 770,000 hectares;

vii)  high altitude low shrublands composed of Ormenis scariosa, Adenocarpus anagyrifolius, Retama dasycarpa, Alyssum spinosum, Bupleurum spinosum, Dactylis glomerata, Stipa nitens. The area concerned is about 50,000 hectares

viii) high altitude steppes composed of Artemisia herba-alba, Ormenis scariosa and Bupleurum spinosum and covering about 93,000 hectares

The last four ecosystems are used mostly by transhumant herds from both sides of the High Atlas. Despite the relatively high animal pressures exerted on them in the summer months and the appearance of degradation indicators, these ecosystems remain relatively productive and with a good species diversity.

The Rif mountains
This range extends all along the 400 kilometres of the Mediterranean coast and some 100 kilometres inland, and covers, with its borders, approximately 916,000 hectares. The range is characterized by a topographic dissymmetry represented by short and abrupt northern slopes (over 40 km only), and a southern slope with altitudes decreasing progressively over long distances. It is also characterized by a W-E decreasing climatic gradient (from over 1,200 mm to less than 300 mm). Three bioclimatic domains could be distinguished: 1) semi-arid in the coastal and sub-littoral areas, and also in its southern and eastern borders; 2) humid in its central zone with altitudes exceeding often 2,000 m; 3) sub-humid in the remaining areas. Soils include rendzinas over marly and limestone substrates, luvisols/acrisols (rouges) over schists and hard limestones, vertisols, and lithosols. However, due to high intensity rainfall events, degradation of the vegetation cover (mostly through inappropriate cropping on steep slopes), and the type of substrate, soil erosion is a major problem with an average of 2,000 T/sq km/year. Livestock production is based on small ruminants, mostly goats, in small-size herds.

Major rangeland ecosystems are:
i) tall shrublands (matorral) in semi-arid areas with temperate winters (mostly along the Mediterranean coast, composed of Pistacia lentiscus, Phillyrea angustifolia, Olea europea and locally Juniperus phoenicea, Callitris articulata, Lavandula spp., Piptatherum miliaceum. The area of interest is about 83,000 hectares;

ii) tall shrublands along the Mediterranean coast and in the Eastern part of the range, composed of Callitris articulata, Cistus villosus, Lavandula multifida, Teucrium fruticans, Hyparrhenia hirta, Piptatherum miliaceum. The area covered is 140,000 hectares

iii) forests and brushlands of the semi-arid and sub-humid with cold winters, composed of Quercus rotundifolia, Thymus spp., Cistus spp., Genista sp., Festuca rubra, Dactylis glomerata. The area is estimated at 160,000 hectares;

iv) herbaceous vegetation of the sub-humid western part of the zone, composed of Urginea maritima, Asphodelus microcarpus, Cynodon dactylon, Chamaerops humilis, Plantago spp., Rumex sp.. Locally, remnants of perennial grasses such as Dactylis glomerata, Hyparrhenia hirta, Piptatherum miliaceum. This type is found as part of a mosaic with cropland and fallows. The area covered is approximately 20,000 hectares

v) woodlands and forests in the sub-humid with temperate to cool winters composed of Quercus suber, Erica arborea, Cistus spp. In the temperate area, other species such as Callitris articulata, Pistacia lentiscus, Arbutus unedo, Hyparrhenia hirta, Piptatherum miliaceum. The area covered is 288,000 hectares

vi) brushlands resulting from the degradation of forests in the humid with temperate to cool winters, composed of Chamaerops humilis, Cistus spp, Erica arborea, Arbutus unedo. Locally, Ampelodesma mauritanica stands can be found. The area covered is 160,000 ha;

vii) forests in the humid with cool to cold winters, composed of Cedrus atlantica, Acer monspessulanum, Quercus spp. A small forest of Abies maroccana is found in this type.

The Zone of Mamora-Zaers
This zone of approximately 800,000 hectares is situated on a series of plateaux extending from the Atlantic ocean between the cities of Salé and Kenitra to the west, to the Middle Atlas to the East and the Phosphate plateau to the South. These plateaux are: 1) Mamora plateau between 30 m of elevation to 350 m; 2) the Central plateau between altitudes of 300 m to over 1000 m. The climate can be characterized by a number of gradients: 1) N-S: Kenitra 600 mm (sub-humid), Rabat 520 mm (sub-humid), Casablanca 440 mm (semi-arid); 2) W-E: Rabat 520 mm, Tiflet 450 mm (semi-arid); 3) altitudinal gradient: Rabat (coastal city) 520 mm; Oulmès at 1260 m 784 mm (sub-humid). Soils resources include sandy soils, gleysols (hydromorphes), vertisols, and lithosols. Livestock production is based mostly on sheep and cattle.

Major rangeland ecosystems are:
i) the Mamora cork oak (Quercus suber) forest on sands of variable depths, interrupted with cropped areas and commercial plantations of Eucalyptus spp. and Acacia cyanophylla. Associated species include: 1) shrubs such as Teline linifolia, Thymelaea lythroides, Cistus salviaefolius, Lavandula stoechas, Ulex boivini; 2) herbaceous species such as the perennials Dactylis glomerata, Festuca caerulescens, Aristida tunetana, Holcus lanatus, Stipa gigantea, Hyparrhenia hirta, Cynodon dactylon, Sanguisorba minor and the annuals Vulpia alopecura, Anthoxanthum odoratum, Lolium multiflorum, Brachypodium distachyum, Bromus sterilis, Briza spp., Ormenis mixta, Helianthemum guttatum, Sonchus oleraceus, Tolpis barbata, Ornithopus isthmocarpus, Trifolium spp; Area 140,000 hectares

ii) forests and woodlands of the semi-arid temperate to warm winters, composed of Callitris articulata, Pistacia lentiscus, Phillyrea angustifolia, Olea europea, Rhus pentaphylla, Cistus villosus, Lavandula multifida, Dactylis glomerata, Hyparrhenia hirta, Asphodelus microcarpus, Bromus spp. Brachypodium distachyum. The area is about 280,000 hectares

iii) forests of inner lands under sub-humid bioclimate and cool winters, composed of Quercus rotundifolia, Cistus spp.; Lavandula stoechas, Thymus spp., Dactylis glomerata, Festuca caerulescens, Cynosurus sp., Bromus spp., Brachypodium spp. The area covered is about 87,000 hectares

The Plains and Plateaux North of the Atlas
This zone extends over an estimated area of 1,275,000 hectares. It is composed of the following physiographic units: 1) the phosphates plateau (300-400 mm of rainfall); 2) the Rhamna range (250 mm of rainfall); 3) the Jbilete range (250-300 mm); 4) the Bahira plain (250 mm); 5) the Haouz plain (250 mm); 6) the Chichaoua plateau (200 mm). Soil resources include lithosols with caliche layers, rendzinas, xerosols (steppic isohumic). Livestock production is based on sheep and cattle.

Major rangeland ecosystems are:
i) degraded herbaceous vegetation on lithosols with caliche, composed of Asphodelus microcarpus, Chamaerops humilis, Stipa capensis, Macolmia patula, Medicago spp., Ziziphus lotus. The area concerned is about 280,000 hectares;

ii) degraded steppes composed of Stipa capensis, Calendula bicolor, Medicago spp., Notoceras bicorne, Eruca vesicaria extend over 250,000 hectares in a mosaic with croplands;

iii) degraded steppes situated in the driest parts and shallow soils, composed of Hammada scoparia, Eruca vesicaria, Notoceras bicorne, covering an area of 126,000 hectares;

iv) degraded steppes composed of Salsola vermiculata with Aizoon hispanicum, or with Atriplex halimus, Anacyclus radiatus, Diplotaxis tenuisiliqua, covering a total area of about 100,000 hectares in a mosaic with crops;

v) degraded steppes of the Rhamna and Jbilete ranges with lithosols, composed of Stipa capensis, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Notoceras bicorne, Diplotaxis spp., Peganum harmala. Desirable species such as Hyparrhenia hirta, Cenchrus ciliaris, Lavandula dentata are minor elements or only as traces like Artemisia herba-alba. This type covers about 328,000 hectares

vi) degraded steppes composed of Lycium intricatum, Plantago ovata, Peganum harmala, Ferula communis, covering some 96,000 hectares.

The Coastal Meseta
This zone is mostly cropland. However, the land closest to the Atlantic ocean, or what is called the Sahel, over a width of 30 km, is in the form of consolidated dunes with exposed limestone and dolomite on the surface and so is mostly covered by natural vegetation used for grazing in autumn, winter and early spring. Animals move to arable plains inland in summer for stubble grazing.

Vegetation is basically composed of herbaceous species such as Asphodelus microcarpus, Rumex bucephalophorus, Plantago coronopus, Spergularia fimbriata, Lotus maroccanus, Vulpia myuros, Bromus rigidus and Paronychia argentea. However, desirable perennials, including woody species, may regenerate with protection from grazing: Chamaecytisus albidus, Retama monosperma, Sanguisorba minor, Dactylis glomerata and Piptatherum miliaceum.

The Argan zone
This zone extends over an estimated area of 1.5 million hectares. Consequently, it is quite diverse in terms of physiographic and climatic conditions: 1) coastal plains of Abda and Chiadma; 2) the Essaouira region; 3) the western area of the High Atlas; 4) the Souss plain; 5) the western Anti-Atlas. Rainfall gradients are: 1) decreasing N-S: Oualidia 392 mm, Safi 327 mm, Essaouira 278 mm, Agadir 250 mm, Anti-Atlas 200-250 mm; 2) increasing with altitude in the western High Atlas; 3) decreasing from W to E in the Souss plain south of the High Atlas. Soil resources are mostly lithosols. Fluvisols are found in lowlands. Livestock production under rainfed conditions is mainly goats on rangelands (particularly browsing on tops of the argan tree). Under irrigated systems, cattle and sheep are dominant.

Major rangeland ecosystems consist of:
i) coastal or sub-coastal steppes of the Saharan bioclimate with warm to temperate winter, composed of either: 1) Euphorbia echinus, Euphorbia regis-jubae, Helianthemum confertum, Retama monosperma; or 2) Argania spinosa, Artemisia herba-alba, Euphorbia echinus; and covering 40,000 hectares

ii) wooded steppes of the arid bioclimate with cool to warm winters, composed of Argania spinosa, Artemisia herba-alba, Ziziphus lotus, Stipa capensis and Asphodelus fistulosus; and covering 680,000 hectares

iii) argan forests in the semi-arid with temperate winters, associated with Olea europea, Pistacia lentiscus, Genista sp., Chamaerops humilis; and covering 235,000 hectares;

iv) forests and woodlands composed of Callitris articulata, Olea europea, Phillyrea angustifolia, Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia lentiscus, Cistus villosus, Lavandula multifida, Thymus sp; Teucrium fruticans; and covering 225,000 hectares;

v) oak forest of the sub-humid with cool winters, composed of Quercus rotundifolia, Callitris articulata, Pistacia lentiscus, Arbutus unedo, Juniperus phoenicea; and covering 76,000 hectares;

The Presaharan zone
This zone extends over 5.7 million hectares. It is bound by the 100 mm and the 200 mm isohyets, respectively to the South and the North. As such, it comprises the Southern slopes of both the High Atlas and the Anti-Atlas.

Major rangeland ecosystems are:
i) relatively degraded steppes of the arid bioclimate with cold winters, composed of Artemisia herba-alba, Thymus spp., Anvillea radiata, Launaea acanthoclada, Stipa parviflora. This type is nevertheless relatively productive (about 400 kg DM/ha/year) and covers approximately 2,200,000 hectares;

ii) alfa steppes at their southern limit composed of Stipa tenacissima, Stipa parviflora, Thymus spp., extending over an estimated area of 300,000 hectares;

iii) steppes of the South eastern plain of Tamlelt, composed of Hammada scoparia, Atractylis serratuloides, Farsetia hamiltoni and Aristida obtusa. Stands of Artemisia herba-alba, Atractylis serratuloides and Stipa parviflora can also be found. This is an ecosystem of relatively high potential, despite the climatic constraints and the impact of past use on vegetation and soil. This covers around 350,000 hectares;

iv) degraded steppes of the Saharan bioclimate composed of Fredolia aretioides, Hammada scoparia and Cymbopogon schoenanthus, covering 350,000 hectares;

v) degraded steppes of the Saharan bioclimate on regs, composed of Fredolia aretiodes, Launaea arborescens, Limoniastrum fei and Gymnocarpos decandrum. Area 570,000 hectares

vi) degraded steppes of the Saharan bioclimate on regs/hamadas, composed of Hammada scoparia, Atractylis serratuloides, Farsetia spp. and Limonium sp. The area covered is about 1,000,000 hectares;

vii) degraded steppes of the Saharan bioclimate on regs, composed of Zilla macroptera, Launaea arborescens, Hammada scoparia and Farsetia spp. The estimated area is 750,000 hectares;

The Saharan zone
This zone extends over a considerable area of 46,500,000 hectares. However, forage productivity is generally low and variable because of low and variable rainfall (less than 100 mm). Nevertheless, the zone possesses a relatively high ecosystem diversity due to the extensive area, and to spatial variability (wadis, regs, hamadas, sebkhas, dunes). This diversity is at the base of livestock activities, particularly camels adapted to make good use of diversity over long distances.

Major rangeland ecosystems are:
i) steppes of the regs and hamadas, composed of Hammada scoparia, Aristida spp. This is the most extensive type with over 34,500,000 million hectares;

ii) steppes of the consolidated dunes, composed of Aristida pungens, Calligonum comosum, covering about 2,600,000 million hectares;

iii) coastal steppes composed of Euphorbia regis-jubae, Euphorbia echinus, Euphorbia balsamifera and  Senecio anteuphorbium, relatively productive (200 Kg DM/ha) 1,200,000 hectares

iv) coastal steppes composed of Salsola tetrandra, Zygophyllum waterlottii, Launaea arborescens and Lycium intricatum. Area concerned: approximately 1,300,000 hectares

v) steppes of the wadis (Draâ valley) composed of Atriplex halimus, Retama retam, Tamarix sp., Limoniastrum ifniense and Nitraria retusa. These steppes are among the most productive in the Saharan zone. Area 2,400,000 hectares;

vi) wooded steppes composed of Acacia raddiana, Withania adpressa and Cymbopogon schoenanthus. Area 440,000 hectares;

vii) halophytic steppes of the sebkhas, composed of Zygophyllum waterlotii, Zygophyllum gaetulum, Suaeda mollis and Suaeda monodiana. These steppes are the most productive (800 kg DM/ha). Area 1,700,000 hectares;

viii) steppes of the rocky plateaux and mountains, composed of Nucularia perrini, Traganum nudatum, Salsola spp. and Hammada scoparia. Area 1,700,000 hectares.

Fallows, stubbles and crop residues
Fallow land. Each year, more than 2,000,000 hectares are under fallow which is used for seasonal grazing. The flora is dominated by weedy species and varies according to agro-climatic conditions: i) in the Southwest (Souss), where precipitation is less than 250 mm and the temperatures relatively warm, fallows are poor in terms of floristic composition and productivity. Species include Stipa capensis, Medicago minima, Eryngium tricuspidatum, Diplotaxis spp.; ii) in the Atlantic plains and plateaux with less than 350 mm rainfall, and temperate winters, species include: Malcolmia sp., Notoceras bicorne, Diplotaxis spp., Eryngium sp., Medicago spp. iii) in the Atlantic plains and plateaux with rainfall greater than 350 mm, Malva hispanica, Calendula bicolor, Papaver sp., Sinapis sp., Avena sterilis, Medicago spp., Bromus spp., iv) inland plains and plateaux: Avena sterilis, Bromus spp., Phalaris minor, Papaver sp., Medicago spp., Hordeum murinum, Lolium rigidum; v) in the mountains: Avena sp., Papaver sp, Trifolium spp., Hordeum murinum, Vicia sp.; vi) in the Eastern Region: Bromus spp., Eruca vesicaria, Stipa capensis, Medicago spp.

Stubbles. Stubbles are used from harvest (May-June) to September-October. Their quality is relatively good during the first four weeks (Kabbali and Berger 1990) due to a high grain content and a high leaf/stem ratio. Later on, supplements are necessary, especially for pregnant sheep and after September.

Crop residues and by-products. These include wheat chaff, pelleted sugar beet meal, molasses, sunflower and cottonseed meal. The quantities utilized in 1989 were 1, 138, 159, 185, and 48 KT, respectively (Guessous 1991). In the recent past, increases in availability have been greater for wheat chaff, and the sunflower and cottonseed meal.

Fodder Crops
Fodder crops are grown on approximately 386,000 hectares. This includes annuals such as oats, fodder barley, berseem and fodder maize; lucerne as a perennial.

Oats: or the oats/vetch mixture were grown in 1994 on approximately 70,000 ha and 50,000 ha, respectively (Amine and El Baghati 1997). Mixtures are used in Sais and pure oats in Khemisset, Tangiers, Khenifra, Ifrane. The contribution of oats to the forage resource is 10 percent, corresponding to an average yield of only 1 500 FU /ha (MAMVA 1994-95): Fodder unit (FU) is defined as the equivalent to the net energy content of 1 kg of standard barley grain.

Fodder Barley: occupies the second rank in fodder acreage, after lucerne. It is cultivated on about 82,000 ha or 20% of the fodder acreage and contributes 9 % to the total fodder units (FU) produced by all sown fodder in the country (Amine and El Baghati 1997).It is mixed with a legume, generally peas, on about one sixth of its area (Ouknider 1997). Most fodder barley (90 percent) is gown under rainfed conditions, particularly in the plains of Chaouia, Doukkala, Abda, Tadla, and the Khemisset area (Amri and El Mzouri 1997). Under irrigation, it is grown in the Tadla, Doukkala and Tafilalet perimeters. Yields are relatively low on the average, attaining 1 500 FU/ha and 3,000 FU/ha, under rainfed and irrigation, respectively (Amri and El Mzouri 1997).

Lucerne: it occupies the largest area of sown fodder in the country, 85,000 hectares or about 22 percent (Birouk et al. 1997). Owing to its high productivity, it contributes about 50 percent of the total FU of the sown fodder. It is used as cut and carry fed fresh, to make hay, silage, and pellets. Most of the lucerne is grown in three major areas: i) the oasis systems of the valleys of Ziz, Draa and Dades south of the Atlas mountains; ii) the terraces in the valleys of the Atlas mountains; iii) the irrigated perimeters north of the Atlas, such as Tadla, Doukkala, Haouz, Moulouya and Souss-Massa. Average yield is 53 t fu/ha (Birouk et al. 1997).

Berseem: is grown on approximately 50,000 hectares annually. The area continues to extend (20 percent increase in the last decade) (Bounejmate 1997a). Its production attains 250 million FU (about 20 percent of the FU produced by sown fodder) (Bounejmate 1997a). Berseem is grown mainly in the irrigated perimeters of the Rharb, Doukkala, Haouz, and Tadla (Bounejmate 1997a). It is not grown in the southern perimeters of the oases because of the cold, and lucerne is better adapted. Berseem is grown under rainfed conditions in the Rharb and Loukkos plains and in the North (Chefchaouen, Tetouan, Sidi Kacem). Average production attains 8 to 10 t DM/ha (Ameziane 1987), well below the potential of 16 tons DM/ha.

Fodder maize: is grown on approximately 15,000 hectares, corresponding to 4 percent of the sown fodder (total maize acreage is 375,000 ha mostly for grain). It contributes some 116.6 million FU, corresponding to 11.5 percent of the sown fodder production (MAMVA 1994-95). The major areas of fodder maize under irrigation are the Rharb, Sous-Massa, Chefchaouen, Tetouan, and Doukkala. Under rainfed conditions, it is mainly grown in the northern parts of the country.

Forage Seed Production
Forage and pasture seed production is less developed compared to other crops. This is due probably to the fact that forage seeds are considered by all stakeholders and mainly by farmers as a by-product to forage production. Therefore, most seeds are produced and distributed through the informal sector.

The most important forage crops are Lucerne, berseem clover, barley and maize under irrigation; oat, vetch, barley, ryegrass, fodder peas, and annual medic in the rainfed zones. For range improvement plants used are perennial grasses (Dactylis, Festuca, Agropyron, etc.), annual medics, clovers and fodder shrubs (Atriplex, Acacia, and native shrubs).

Although, efforts have been made to develop new forage crop cultivars (Table 6), forage and pasture seed production in the country is less developed compared to other crops.

In general, the assessment of forage and pasture seed needs is very difficult due to the fluctuation of the amount of informal seed used by farmers and to the lack of precise information related to the subject. Table 7 gives areas cultivated with forage crops, seed requirement, production and importation.

Seed production in the country is highly dependent on the amount and the distribution of rainfall in the year. Therefore, seed needs are covered either through national production or through imports. In general seed import constitutes the rescue solution for forage and pasture seeds particularly in dry years.

In Morocco forage seed marketing and distribution are carried out by the National Society for Seed Commercialisation (SONACOS). Some pasture seeds are also distributed to range projects by the Pastoral Seed Production Centre (CPSP at El Jadida) (Tazi, 1998).

It should be emphasised that Morocco began range seed production during the nineteen-eighties. This is undertaken by public institutions such as the Centre de Production des Semences Pastorales at El Jadida and the Forestry Department. However the quantities produced do not exceed 50 tons/year (Tazi, 1995). Range seed production is undertaken for: (a) rehabilitation of degraded rangeland, (b) improvement of fallow land, and (c) improving fodder crop production.