1. INTRODUCTION
2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Soils
Indigenous classification of soil and agricultural land
Topography

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Climate
Agro-ecological zones

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Livestock statistics
Livestock management systems
Feed sources
Feeding systems
Feed utilization
Strategies for fodder production
Major problems associated with feeds and feeding
Integration of livestock into farming systems
Utilization of the various grassland resources
Vegetation - livestock - wildlife
Livestock market and trading practices

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE

Grassland types
Grassland productivity and carrying capacity
Pasture and fodder crops
Fodder trees and shrub fodder

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE RESOURCES

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL

8. REFERENCES

9. CONTACTS

The small and landlocked Kingdom of Nepal extends from the highest peak in the world to the plains of the Terai. It lies along the slopes of the Himalaya between China and India with a land area of 147 181 km² being 800 km from east to west, and from 144 km to 240 km north to south, between 80 ⁰ – 88 ⁰ E and 26⁰ - 31⁰ N. The country borders India to the East, South and West and China to the North (See Figures 1a and 1b). The elevation ranges from 66 m to 8 848 m above sea level.

Figure 1a. Map of Nepal
Figure 1b. The Himalaya-Hindu Kush and Tibetan Plateau Area
Notes	FAO disclaimer

Nepal has distinct land use patterns as it is influenced by climatic variation, altitude and relief. Land use in the hills differs from that of the plains. After the eradication of malaria in 1958 there has been a massive migration of people from the hills and mountains to the Terai. Since then, the area under forest decreases every year and land under crops was increasing until recently when the government started a massive campaign against deforestation to check falling soil fertility caused by soil erosion and landslides.

Population distribution and growth influence the land use pattern. Pressure on the forest has increased due to the rapid population growth. Of a land area of 14.7 million ha, 17% is plain and the remaining 83% is hills and mountains. 15% of the total land is covered by snow and 37% by forest, whereas 18% is under agriculture. The population was 24.80 million at the 2004 census, increasing at a rate of 2.25% annually (although the World Factbook estimates the July 2006 population at 28,287,147 with an 2.17% growth rate). Population density per hectare of cultivated land is generally higher in the Hills than the Terai and lowest in the Mountains. The people of Nepal belong to several ethnic groups and may practice different agricultural techniques, so some details are given when discussing stock rearing and systems. The main religions are Hinduism and Buddhism.

The total cultivable area is 3.1 million hectares with a cropping intensity of 183%. Table 1 gives the land use statistics.

The livestock sector
There is an enormous ruminant livestock population which puts considerable pressure on land resources. Nepal's total herd in 2003/04 was: cattle 6.9 million (including yaks and hybrids), buffalo 3.9 million, sheep 0.82 million and goats 6.9 million (Table 2).

The ruminant population is greatest in the Hills, followed by the Terai and is least in the Mountains (Table 3).

However, average numbers of livestock per household are generally higher in Mountain households than Terai or Hill households (Table 4). Terai households generally have more cattle to produce draught bullocks because their holdings are larger (2.58 ha.) than in the Hills (1.01 ha.) or Mountains (0.83 ha.). Buffaloes are used for cultivation in the Terai (Table 4).

Livestock Breeds. The different livestock breeds in Nepal are listed in Table 5.

Land ownership and tenure
The history of land ownership and tenancy rights closely follows political developments. Land reform policies were introduced from 1951. Early reforms, motivated by a fear of agrarian revolution starting in the western Terai, sought to offer greater security of tenure, regulate rents paid to landlords and prohibit further extraction of money and labour from tenants. Restricted to the Terai this legislation redefined the tenant - landlord relationship, rather than changing the structure of the agrarian system. Reforms of the tenancy system could not ensure that the productive capacity of the land was fully released, because of unequal distribution of costs and benefits of production, Traditionally, the tenant bore all costs of production, while returns were shared with the landowner. With land rents set by the land reform act at 50% of the gross product, the cost-benefit ratio for financial or labour investment in additional fertilizer application by tenant would be half that for an owner-cultivator.

Such theoretical predictions of the effects of land tenure systems on soil fertility management practices are supported by the higher yields observed under owner-cultivation. Perhaps in response to poor yields from tenant farms, landowners have begun to supply chemical fertilizers, favoured by tenants as a "free" input for quick returns. Tenants with little security on the land they cultivate and little vested interest in long-term productivity, may favour the use of chemical fertilizers. Greater investment was found in terms of application of compost, green manure and mulch by owner cultivators who are assured of both the short and long-term effects of their investment.

More far-reaching reforms were introduced between 1964 and 1966 and included the imposition of a ceiling on land holdings which, together with rent control measures, sought to reduce returns from investments in land so as to divert capital to finance industrial developments. Such a potentially radical move against the elite followed the return of the monarchy in 1960 and was supported by international political and economic interests. International support was motivated by fears that tenant unrest might support the spread of communism in the region.

The impact of the reforms was blunted by the high ceiling set for land holdings: 4.1 and 1.1 ha, respectively, for landowners and tenants in the hills, compared to the present average holding of 0.4 hectares for a family of between five and six members. The high share of production (50%) appropriated by landowners, compared to under 25% in India, the Philippines, Sri Lanka and Thailand, continues to influence the management practices of cultivators.

Generally, quick returns are required by tenants to meet subsistence requirements. This, and the relatively insecure nature of tenancy-cultivation, leads to management decisions with a short-term focus. Long-term investments in the land (such as optimum terracing, the planting of trees and trash/ grass binding to prevent soil erosion) may not be considered. Tree planting, in particular, may be discouraged because of rights and ownership status.

Common property resources

Common property resources (CPRs) are resources in which groups of people have co-equal use right. In Nepal, these include community forests and scrubland, community pastures, wastelands, watershed drainage, village ponds, rivers, streams and their banks. CPRs contribute to subsistence livelihoods, employment, income generation and asset accumulation. They complement private farm activities, providing organic matter for compost and green manure, animal feed and bedding, and are particularly important at times of economic hardship.

There are considerable differences between locations in levels of dependence on CPRs for fodder. Two studies in the Central Region found that between 25% and 30% of fodder was collected from sources beyond farm boundaries. In contrast, up to 85% of fodder may come from off-farm sources. In a given area, households are likely to differ in their reliance on CPRs. Resource-poor households have been found, generally, to rely on off-farm resources to a greater extent than the relatively resource rich.

In considering CPRs it is important to distinguish resources used and managed by a distinct group of people from those that have no restrictions on their use (open access resource). The pessimistic prognosis of Hardin (1968) for the "tragedy of the commons" argues that degradation of commonly held property is inevitable because of the economic advantages to the individual of increasing their share, while an individual is unable to control over-exploitation by unilateral action. However, in community-managed CPR's in Nepal, individuals act to preserve resources. A number of factors reinforce active management in these situations. Limited group and resource size enables members to police use of the resource effectively. A strong sense of membership of a common and interdependent community, together with shared knowledge and trust between users, leads to high levels of social capital being present. Community values depend on both the resource and group cohesion, factors that over-ride the short-term economic rationale of individual over-exploitation.

Traditional CPR management arrangements in Nepal have provided relatively sustainable and equitable access to forest areas for centuries. However, the CPR base has changed and, often, has been restricted in area or accessibility. Generally, this has resulted less from the nature of CPR management than from the burgeoning demand of an expanding population. Reductions in the size of land-holdings alongside this increased demand have compromised what were, traditionally, sustainable land management practices; soil productivity has declined and reduced returns to labour inputs. Such vicious circles build up in various areas of agricultural activity. The need for increased production leads to an expansion in livestock numbers. The resulting higher demand for fodder and access to grazing leads to greater use of CPRs, eventually exceeding their regenerative capacity, which inevitably leads to degradation, with reduced resource availability, including that of fodder and leaf litter for composting, which in turn leads to increased rated of erosion and reduced soil productivity.

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Soils
The soils of Nepal (see Figure 2) are not classified in detail and systematic information regarding soil taxonomy is not available. In 1986, a Land Resource Mapping Project (LRMP) carried out a countrywide survey and produced a soil classification report based on USDA soil taxonomy. It reported 14-soil group covering the 4 soil orders encountered in Nepal. They are mainly Entisols, Inceptisols, Mollisols and Alfisols. Soil orders Spodosols, Histosols, Ultisols and Aridosols are occasionally found.

Entisols. These are the youngest and least developed soils, generally found on hill sides and adjacent to river courses. These soils are formed through deposition of colluvium and alluvium and are present throughout the country. Three great groups of this order are recorded. They are Ustifluvents, Ustorthents and Fluvaquents.

Ustifluvents. Are commonly found where the rivers are active in the depositional stage. Horizons of deposition are identifiable but soil does not show any pedogenetic development. They are mostly coarse textured, highly permeable and well drained. Depending upon the type of materials the rivers are carrying they can be calcareous or non-calcareous. The land is used for grazing and Acacia catechu grows there.

Ustorthents. These develop through colluvial deposition and are found in landslide scars and on slopes of more than 35 degrees. As the soil develops it is constantly removed by erosion. They are shallow, near the bedrock, coarse textured and poorly vegetated. Alnus is very well suited to such soil in Nepal. These soils are used for grazing, fodder and firewood collection.

Figure 2. Soils of Nepal [Click to view full image] Source: Soil Science Division, NARC

Fluvaquents. These entisols are also found adjacent to rivers, are poorly to imperfectly drained, vary in texture and occasionally flooded. If suited to cultivation rice can be grown.

Inceptisols. These cover the largest area in Nepal and are the most important soils. They occurs on more stable slopes and show distinct weathering in the subsoil. The vast difference in landscape, climate and geology and parent materials have helped to develop a variety of Inceptisols.

Haplaquents. This soil is dominant in the lower piedmont plain of the Terai where drainage is restricted. It is also found in duns (broad flat valleys), valleys and limited areas of the Middle hills. The B-horizon is well developed. As water remains for more than three months the subsoil shows gleying and mottling. Water table fluctuates and during the monsoon comes very close to the surface. Due to the aquic moisture regime rice grows well on the soils whereas crops requiring aeration do not thrive. These soils are common in the low relief areas and adjacent to major river systems.

Dystrochrepts. These are the commonest soils in the Terai as well as in the Middle hills, mostly below 1 500 m and have developed on the acidic or neutral bedrock including lacustrine deposits. They have a well- developed B-horizon and base saturation below 60%. They developed under forest and are found on steeper slopes and can be stony, well drained and deeper with ample stones and gravel. Their pH is below 5.5 and they have low base saturation. Organic matter plays an important role in retaining soil plant nutrients suppressing the possibility of aluminium toxicity. These soils should be cautiously used by maintaining high organic matter content. Prolonged use of nitrogenous fertilizers alone may increase soils acidity and need to be amended with high rates of lime. Erosion control on the hill slopes is a must to maintain the productivity of Dystrochrepts.

Ustochrepts. These are commonly on alluvial plains of the Terai and Siwalik regions and develop on phyllite, schists, quartzite and limestone on the Middle and High hills. They are commoner on the Western and Middle hills. They are diagnosed by a well-developed B-horizon, pale surface soils, high base saturation, variable soil texture and structure. Those developed on colluvial deposits are stonier. Soils on calcareous parent materials are non-calcareous at the surface. As depth increases calcium carbonate increases due to the leaching and precipitation of the calcium carbonate in the lower horizons. These soils on hilly areas are prone to heavy soil. Ustochrepts in the Terai are deep, well-drained, loamy texture, non-stony and non-calcareous but with high base saturation and when irrigated these soils have wide production potential. Ustochrepts in the Siwalik, Middle and Mountain regions are deep to shallow, stony, coarse to loamy texture, well drained calcareous or non-calcareous but have high base saturation.

Cryumbrepts. These are the soils of the High Himalayan and High Hill regions, generally found above 3 000 m but, depending on the local climate, altitude varies. Annual mean temperature is below 8 ⁰C. Soils of this great group have dark A horizon, high organic matter with wide C/N ratio, low base saturation and contain no free carbonate. They are rubbly and silty in texture. As they are under snow at least three months of the year, vegetation ranging from monsoon grasses to Abies, Rhododendron and Betula is found. Near settlements trees are cleared for fodder and firewood and bare areas are prone to soil erosion. Pathways of gullies caused by melting snow are common. Areas under these soils are extensively used for seasonal grazing.

Haplumbrepts. These are the soils of the High and Middle hill regions and developed in cool temperatures on the acidic bedrocks under mixed forest. They are characterized by well developed Ah and Bm horizons. They have low base saturation and an udic moisture regime. Soils under forest and on steep slopes are shallow and stony but the cultivated ones are fertile due to a high organic matter content, which inactivates the toxic effect of aluminium by its chelating action. Frequency of stones on the surface hinders cultivation. Soil fertility is regularly maintained by grazing animals, and leaving fallow for 2-3 year periods. Barley, millet and potato are the main crops grown.

Cryochrepts. These, similar to Ustochrepts, are found above 3 000 metres. They are of no importance for agriculture production.

Eutrochrepts. These soils are similar to Ustochrepts but develop on calcium rich parent materials under an udic moisture regime.

Spodosols. These are soils with high organic matter and active amorphous materials containing Al but with or without Fe which develop between 3 000-4 000 m altitude with a humid, cool climate. They are found in the higher part of the High Hills and the lower part of the high Himalayan region and occupy a very small area. Agriculturally they are of very little importance. They have a well developed Bh or Bf horizon. These soils to be developed need mean annual temperature of 5 - 8 ⁰C. They have low pH, which restricts growth of agricultural crops; rhododendron dominates the vegetation. They occur mostly in Tengboche of the Sagarmatha regions and Wollangchunggola of the upper Tamor River. Cryorthods are a great group under Spodosols.

Mollisols. Soils with high organic matter content, usually under thick grass or forest, dark colour and high base saturation are classified under Mollisols. They develop on basic parent materials at higher elevations.

Haplustolls. These are common in the sub tropical mixed forest of the Terai and inner valleys. They develop on alluvial materials and are distinguished by a soft and dark coloured mollic Ah horizon with high base saturation and a well developed Bm horizon under an ustic moisture regime. Haplustolls develop under forest but not under grassland. Land with old alluvial deposition and forest litter which, on decomposition, contributes high base saturation helps developing mollisols. The litter is generally sal leaves; these soils develop under sal (Shorea robusta) forest. They are usually very fertile and produce high crop yields for the first few years after clearing, but subsequently yields decrease as organic matter content decreases: maintenance of organic matter is necessary to sustain productivity.

Cryoborolls. These differ from Haplustolls mainly in their development on base rich parent materials under thick grassland of the high mountain in high Himalayan regions. They are found in cooler climate and an udic moisture regime.

Alfisols. These soils are found on the higher river terraces with accumulation of a leached layer of lattice of silicate clays in their B horizon and high base saturation. They are available on stable slopes of the Middle and High hill regions where climate helps the development of mature pedogenetic argillic horizons. The great groups of Alfisols found in Nepal are as follows:

Rhodustalfs. These, found in upper river terraces especially in the Siwaliks and Middle hills, are mostly developed on green phyllite. They are not present in the Terai nor the High hills. They have well expressed Bt horizons; soil matrix hue is more red than 5YR with ustic moisture regime. Base saturation is more than 35%. Fertility is maintained with the application of ample organic matter. Decrease in the content of organic matter correspondingly decreases crop productivity due to loss of fertile surface soil. These occur on ancient river terraces (tars), the upper alluvial terraces where water for irrigation is scarce. Rainfed cultivation is practiced with maize/millet being the major crops. As these crops do not stand waterlogging farmers grow then on sloping terraces, exposing the soil to heavy erosion. Where there is water for irrigation crops are grown on level terraces and the red colour due to the hematite is lost and the Fe is changed to limonite. In this case, total free iron content does not exceed 5% in the Nepalese red soils.

Eutroboralfs. These Alfisols develop on calcium-rich material under cold temperatures in the high Himalayan region.

Haplustalfs. These are Alfisols similar to the Rhodustalf but do not meet the criteria of the Rhodustalfs.

Ultisols. Ultisols are not very common in Nepal. Only one great group, Rhodudults, is found in small pockets of upper terraces formed by rivers. They are similar to the Rhodustalfs but soil pH is low; in these soils phosphorous management is a problem to maintain productivity.

Aridosols. These too are rare in Nepal but occur in the north of Jhomsom in Mustang district where rainfall is less than 250 mm a year. Soils have calcium and other salts accumulated on the surface. Depending on the local microclimate these soils can be fertile and produce good crops if water for irrigation could be supplied.

Indigenous classification of soil and agricultural land
Farmers have systematic criteria for distinguishing soils according to landform position, based on slope, elevation and drainage. Topsoil colour, texture and terrace type are the most dominant criteria for local land classification and soil fertility management. Farmers also use broad climatic regimes to differentiate climatic conditions. These are based on elevation and aspect, which relate to temperature and which is in turn one of the most important factors influencing the choice of crops to be used in the rotation sequence, crop production and length of the growing season. The broad classes, with their native vegetation types are illustrated in Table 6.

Khet and Bari land classification
Irrigated khet and rainfed bari terraces (see Photo) are classified according to landform position and slope. The classification systems developed by farmers form the basis for land management and agronomic cultural practices. Tables 7 and 8 list the terminology used by the farmers for classifying the khet and bari land in the Jhikhu Khola catchment and provide information on terrace types and the management limitations of khet and bari lands. Farmers have adjusted the terrace system to the different sites by changing the size and height of the riser and the width of the terrace to obtain maximum stability, drainage and performance. These classes are well recognized by the local farmers and reflect their experience and adjustment to environmental conditions.

Pata: refers to the flat cultivated land both in the hills and in terai.
Gara: refers to the sloping small cultivated land in the hills.
Kanla: refers to the sloping land between two separate garas.

Farmers have distinct and systematic criteria for soil classification. Soils are differentiated on the basis of colour, topsoil texture, depth and consistency. These factors, in combination with slope provide information on infiltration, drainage, soil moisture retention capacity, organic matter content and stability.

Soil colour
Soil colour can be used as a key distinguishing criterion by farmers. Some of the colour differences relate to the age of the soil, the origin or parent material, and the carbon content. The major topsoil colours used by the farmers to differentiate soils are shown in Table 9 alongside the scientific classification. The colour categories noted by the farmers are a partial indication of organic matter content in the soil. At higher carbon content the soil colours are usually darker, the moisture content and cation-holding capacity are higher, and the structural stability of soil aggregates is greater. In addition, the very old soils in Nepal are deeply weathered and contain significant portions of Fe and Al. the former gives rise to the red soils which have a significant portion of kaolinite and distinct physical properties. Because of the long leaching processes, the red soils are generally low in phosphorous.

Texture
Among the most important physical properties of soils considered by farmers is soil texture. Soil texture involves the size of individual particles and arrangement of soil particles into groups or aggregates. These properties determine nutrient supplying ability of soil solids and the supply of water and air necessary for plant root development activities. The size of particles in mineral soil (texture) is not readily subject to change, and remains constant. The farmers are aware of the fact that the texture of a given soil can be changed only by mixing it with another soil of different textural class. Farmers incorporate large quantities of sand and sill through irrigation water to improve the physical properties of red day soils for potato cultivation. The textural classes differentiated by farmers in the field are listed in Table 10 below and their equivalent USDA soil texture classes are also provided. The farmer's textural classifications are used primarily for crop selection and soil management. Heavy textured (chimte) soils require higher labour inputs then light textured (domat) soils for ploughing and other cultivation activities. Moisture content in relation to texture is also used as an index of workability of the soil.

Soil depth
Soil depth is one of the most important criteria used by farmers. Deep soils (gahiro) generally have higher moisture-retention capacities than shallow ones. Shallow soils restrict the penetration of roots and affect the soil moisture retention. Deep soils (> 1 metre) do not restrict the distribution of roots. Farmers prefer soils with a root depth of more than a metre and are aware of factors governing the uptake of nutrients and use of soil moisture by plants.

Soil consistency
Soil consistency has important significance for tillage and land management. Farmers do not distinguish criteria but know that wet red clay soils are sticky and slippery while sandy soils are not. "Rato Mato Chiplo Bato" a term used to note that red soils are slippery has significance to farmers in that these soils have poor infiltration. Major local terms used for classifying consistency are provided in Table 11. Terms for classifying soil consistency may be simple, but are meaningful and easily understood by farmers.

The soil classification system used by the farmers is based on soil colour, texture, consistency and depth. Most indigenous classes can readily be converted to commonly used scientific classification. The conversion table facilitates communication between subsistence farmers and extension personnel. More documentation and calibration is needed, particularly in the area of physical properties and soil performance in terms of biomass production. Additional research is needed to document indigenous knowledge on soil workability, soil performance and quality, all of which are notoriously difficult to measure scientifically. These are the most fruitful research directions since their potential benefits are great, particularly when new management techniques and new crops are being introduced into the farming systems.

Topography

Physiographic regions
Nepal is divided into five physiographic regions (and three agro-ecological zones: see Figure 3 and Table 15) which are almost parallel to each other, running from west to east. They are: the high Himalayan region, high mountain, middle mountain, Siwaliks and Terai. Details:

Figure 3. Physiographic regions of Nepal [Click to view full image] Source: Soil Science Division, NARC

High Himalayan region. This region which is always covered by snow occupies 23.7% of the total land – 3 447 500 ha. Its altitude ranges from 3 000 m to 8 848 m. The mountains are very steep with active glacier systems. The geology consists of gneiss, schist, limestone and shale of different ages. Physical weathering predominates and soils are very stony. This region falls largely within the alpine and arctic climate regimes, so there are active glacier systems where there is enough precipitation in high catchments. The climate is dependent on elevation and location in the mountain massifs. The few pockets of arable land of Solukhumbu, Mustang, Manang and Dolpa are the result of a unique combination of aspect, shelter from wind and availability of water for irrigation.

Characteristic landforms are glaciers, cirque basins, moraines, U-shaped valleys and avalanche slopes. Bedrock in most of the areas is exposed at or near the surface including gneisses, schist and the Tethys sediments. Less than 1% of the region has soil and climate suited to crop production and then only where irrigation is available.

High Hills (or Mountain) region. The altitude of this region ranges from 2 000 m to 2 500 m and it lies below the permanent snow line. This region occupies 2,899,500 ha making up 19.7% of the country. It has a cool climate and receives heavy to moderate snow in winter. Mountain slopes are very steep but there are some flat valleys as well. The geology is characterized by phyllite, schists, gneiss and quartzite of different ages. Soil formation on the slopes is slow and they are rocky.

This region borders the Middle Hills to the south and the high Himal to the north. The boundaries are defined by changes in geomorphic processes, bedrock geology, climate and relative relief. This region has more metamorphosed and structurally consolidated rocks. Gneisses and garnetiferous mica schists are common. Most of the major valleys have been glaciated. High river gradients and enhanced river down-cutting resulted in the formation of deep canyons since glaciation. Agriculturally this region is of lesser importance. After the snow melts the mountains are covered with thick grasses and livestock like sheep, yak, and other mountain animals graze in this region. In the valleys, in summer, one crop a year can be harvested. The crops are potato, naked barley, buckwheat, and maize. Food grown here is not enough to support the population and more has to brought in.

Middle Hills (or Mountain) region. This region includes a wide range of physiography. Its area is 4 350 300 ha. - about 29.5% of the area of the country. Mountain peaks range up to 2 000 m with narrow river valleys. The mountains are the Mahabharat range. The geology consists of a complex of phyllite, schists, quartzite of Cambrian to Precambrian ages and granites and limestones of different ages. The climate ranges from warm subtropical to warm temperate. The higher peaks receive occasional snow whereas some lower parts receive occasional frost in winter, which causes damage to crops. Soils are extremely variable because of the differences in bedrock, geomorphology and microclimate. The southern margin mostly consists of a prominent belt of uplifted mountains known as Mahabharat Lekh. This belt is made up of deeply weathered granite, limestone, dolomite, shale, sandstone, slate and quartzite; is intensively cultivated and is home for more than 60% of the population. It produces most of its food, yet food is always transported from surplus regions to this area. Subtropical dense forest occupies the non-agricultural land.

Siwalik region. This region lies at the foot of the Mahabharat range. Its area is 1 888 600 ha: 12.7% of the total land. Altitudes range from 300 m to 1 800 m. The geology mainly consists of tertiary mudstone, sandstone, siltstones and conglomerate. Soils vary depending on the materials from which they are developed. There are several inner valleys or duns, which are densely populated. Because of alluvial deposition these valleys are very fertile. The landscape is very rugged and unstable, consisting of weakly consolidated Tertiary sediments with gentle to strongly sloping dip slope. Siwalik soils are unable to retain high precipitation which frequently occurs resulting in flash floods. Duns, a very important part of the Siwalik landscape, are structurally stable and sometimes, in the past, their outlets were blocked by rapid tectonic uplift of the Siwalik range. The major dun valleys are: Chitwan, Dang, Deokhuri, Surkhet, Trijuga and Kamala. Climate in the duns is modified by the regular occurrence of winter fogs; otherwise it is very dry.

The Terai region. The Terai, a flat extension of the southern Indo-Gangetic plain, occupies 2 142 200 ha, 14.4% of the country. Altitudes range from 66 m to 300 m. The region enjoys a warm sub-tropical climate and its alluvial soils are fertile. It is the granary of Nepal. Wherever irrigation is available the land is intensively cultivated. It consists of recent and post-Pleistocene alluvial deposits forming a piedmont plain adjacent to the Himalayan ranges. Although the whole length of the Terai has a common geomorphology, it has obvious differences in land use due to presence of different land systems and land units. The obvious difference is the increased amount of rice cultivation in the eastern Terai indicating a greater proportion of higher quality alluvial soils and more availability of water/rainfall compared to the west. A summary of the major characteristics is given in Table 12 while area and percentage of the physiographic regions are given in Table 13 and shown in Figure 3.

Table 13. Area of each physiographic region
Physiographic region	Area - hectares	Percentage
High Himalayan Region	3 447 500	23.7
High Hills Region	2 889 500	19.7
Middle Hills Region	4 350 300	29.5
Siwalik	1 888 600	12.7
Terai	2 142 200	14.4
Total	14 718 100	100
Source :- MOAC (2004)

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Climate
There is a wide diversity in landscape, altitude, topography and temperature in the country. Temperatures range from arctic to tropical. The High Himalayan region is always below freezing whereas the Terai and the low valleys are always warm. In winter mornings and nights in the hills are bitterly cold and days are chill whereas in the plains and the river valleys mornings and nights are chill and the days are pleasant. Summers in the hills are pleasant but in the plains and valleys are swelteringly hot. January is the coldest and June and July the hottest months. Rainfall and temperature are the two main factors affecting Nepalese agriculture.

Rainfall. 80% of precipitation falls during June to October. The monsoon enters Nepal from the east which receives the first rain; the west gets rain about a week later. The western part receives comparatively less rain than central and eastern parts. The average rainfall in the country is a little above 1 000 mm.

Most of the eastern and central hilly areas receive 1 500 – 2 500 mm; the west gets 1 000 – 1 500 mm. Seasonal distribution of precipitation varies from east to west. The seasonal distribution of precipitation is shown in Table 14.

Winter precipitation is due to the south west monsoon which passes over the driest area of India so the water vapour almost dries out by the time it reaches Nepal. This rain is low in volume but very important for winter crops. Rainfall data from meteorological stations show that the country receives as high as 5 100 mm and as low as 250 mm rain per annum. Rainfall variation is very high, the lowest precipitation is in small rain-shadow areas, for example in the Mustang district of the Himalaya Region, and falls as snow. From March to May there is little or no precipitation and evapotranspiration is maximal. Atmospheric temperatures as well as water requirement of crops are high. From mid-May to mid-October precipitation is sufficient to meet the water requirement of all crops except rice.

Temperature. Temperature is directly related to altitude. For a rise of 100 m, the mean annual temperature drops by 0.5°C. Latitude also affects the temperature. For every 3° north, the mean temperature would fall by 1°C. Temperature falls slowly during the monsoon because of heavy clouds and rain and continues to drop as winter starts. January is the coldest month and June-July are the hottest months. Temperatures tend to rise from east to west. The highest temperature recorded is 46°C (114.8° F) at Chisapani in Bardiya district and the lowest -26° C at Thakmarpha in Mustang district.

Agro-ecological zones

Nepal is divided into three agro-ecological zones: Mountain, Hills and Terai (Table 15). This broad division is based on the altitude, crop and livestock production systems.

Livestock are raised from the plains of the Terai to the rain shadow areas of the Himalayas, and there is a strong integration of crops with livestock, forestry and marketing in all agro-ecological regions. The role of livestock in each agro-ecological zone is specific.

Mountain (> 2 500 m)
In the high hills or mountain areas people are influenced by Tibetan culture and Thakalis, Sherpas and Bhotias live in separate, single, ethnic settlements. Climate varies from warm temperate to alpine. Livestock production is based primarily on crops and grazing. Cultivation includes annual crops on rainfed and irrigated land and perennial crops. Grazing includes the migration of ruminant livestock and the utilization of vegetation.

Herds are made up of yaks, chauries (yak-cattle crosses), cattle, sheep, goats and horses, reared in semi-pastoral or transhumant systems. Livestock move in an annual cycle according to their specific requirements and grazing availability at different altitudes. Yaks occupy an ecological niche at high altitudes (3 000 - 5 000 m), chauries move between 1 500 - 4 000 m, while cattle move between 2 000 and 3 000 m. Sheep, goats and horses are more adaptable to altitude and move between 1 200 – 4 000 m. Plant growth is limited by low temperatures and a short growing season. Barley, buckwheat and potato are the major crops. Pasture at high altitudes is only accessible for grazing in summer (July - September). Thereafter herds move to lower areas for winter (December - March); yaks, however, which are only adapted to cold conditions, are seldom taken below 2 500 m.

Livestock provide milk and fibre and their dung is a major source of fuel. Crossbred males are used for transport and meat. Goats and sheep supply meat and fibre. The use of mules, sheep and goats for trading and transport of basic inputs (grain, salt, building materials, etc.) is an important source of income.

Hills (500-2 500 m)
In the mid hills people are more influenced by the predominant Hindu culture and Brahman, Chhetri, Newars, Magars, Tamang and Gurung, live in multi-ethnic settlements. Livestock, although an integral part of agriculture, is secondary to crops. Climate varies from subtropical to warm-temperate and the major cereals are paddy, wheat, maize and finger millet (Eleusine coracana).

Cattle, buffalo and goats are the main grazing livestock. Livestock rearing is sedentary and animals make daily grazing forays and return every evening. Forages include: grazing in the forest, on cultivated land after harvest, and on fallows; also crop residues of paddy, maize, millet, wheat, mustard, soybean and vegetables; grass gathered from terraces and forests; as well as tree fodder gathered from farmer-owned and forest trees. Cattle graze and only lactating buffaloes and improved cattle (Jersey and Holstein crossbreds) are stall-fed with the associated labour to cut and carry fodder. Female calves are reared as herd replacements while males are either reared for draught oxen or neglected. The disposal of surplus cattle, both male calves and cull females at the end of their reproductive life, is a problem because of religious beliefs inhibiting their sale for slaughter and use for meat.

There is a potential to increase feed production from cultivated land by including winter fodders such as oats (see photo), oats + vetch, and oats + pea mixtures. Concentrate feeds used include: farm-produced rice bran, maize flour, (also barley, oats in Surkhet, Illam, Sindhupalchok, Kavre etc.) and common salt; compound feeds are rarely brought in unless justified by access to an urban liquid milk market. Cattle and buffalo are the source of milk, manure and draught. Sheep and goats are used for meat and fibre. Cultivation of land and transport are done by oxen.

Terai (< 500 m) The Terai is also characterized by multi-ethnic settlements, predominantly influenced by Hindu culture. Cattle and buffalo are the source of milk, manure and draught. Oxen are used for transport and cultivation. Although chemical fertilizers have become increasingly important for the intensive cropping, manure is still the main source of nutrient replenishment and soil fertility maintenance. In many areas where massive deforestation has reduced the supply of firewood, dung is an important fuel.

Cattle, buffaloes and goats are the main grazing livestock. The predominant system of livestock rearing is sedentary and animals make daily grazing forays and return every evening. Compared with the mid-hills, there is less grazing land and forest; so more crop residues are fed and the amount of stall-feeding relative to grazing is greater in the Terai than in the Mid hills. Although there is a similar shortage of feed in winter and before the onset of the monsoon, most productive and draught livestock are well looked after and others survive on the available grazing. Forages in the Terai include: grazing on roadsides, uncultivated land, forest (near the Siwalik), on cultivated land after harvest, and on fallows; crop residues (paddy, wheat, maize, millet, cotton, sugar cane tops, lentils). Cultivation of fodder oats, berseem, and oat and vetch mixtures has become popular in dairy pockets. Home-produced rice bran, wheat bran, maize, gur (evaporated sugar cane juice), broken pigeon pea and salt are the major feed ingredients, alone or in combinations with roughages like rice and wheat straw. Cattle generally graze, but are also stall-fed on crop residues and forages. Lactating buffaloes and improved cattle are given supplementary concentrates.

Female calves are reared as herd replacements while males are either reared for replacement draught oxen, or are neglected, slaughtered, or sold to buyers from India. Buffaloes are used for ploughing in the Terai, but they are hardly used in the mid hills.

Figure 4 shows the different agro-ecozones of Nepal.

Figure 4. The agro-ecozones of Nepal [Click to view full image]

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Livestock statistics
The livestock population of Nepal for 2004/2005 was estimated to be 7.0 M cattle, 4.0-4.1 M buffalo, 7.0-7.2 M goats, and 0.82 M sheep (Table 16).

Source: FAO Database 2005
n.r. = no record

Live cattle and goats are exported particularly to India and while numbers of cattle are also imported, the numbers exported since 1995 are nearly twice those imported (although since 2000 the cumulative numbers imported exceed exports). Small quantities of beef and veal are imported. While dairy products are exported (in 2004 milk equivalent exports were 4,600 tonnes) imports are higher (in 2004 milk equivalent imports were 17,000 tonnes) and the cost of milk equivalent imports exceeded exports by US$ 4,796,000.

Livestock population by ecological zone is shown in Table 17.

Table 17. Livestock population by ecological zones
Ecological Zones	Cattle	Buffalo	Sheep	Goat
Mountain (16 districts)	867700 (12.46) *	347271 (8.79)	357829 (44.20)	968375 (13.87)
Hills (39 districts)	3285357 (47.16)	2077822 (52.56)	364334 (43.42)	3466271 (49.66)
Terai (20 districts)	2813361 (40.38)	1527561 (38.65)	102024 (12.38)	2545229 (36.47)
Total	6966436 (100)	3952654 (100)	824187 (100)	6979875 (100)
Source :- MOAC (2004)

^* Figures in brackets are percentages

Cattle are reared for milk and draught; buffaloes are reared for milk and meat. Goat meat is very popular throughout the country so they are reared for meat, and the Sinhal goats of high altitude regions are reared for meat and pashmina. Sheep are reared for meat and wool. There are 888 190 milking cows, which produced 368 531 metric tons of milk in a year, while 1 015 727 milking buffaloes produced 863 322 metric ton milk in 2003/2004. In the context of total milk production cows produce almost 30 % while buffaloes produce 70 % of the milk in the country (Table 18).

Regarding milk production in the three agro-ecozones, the highest milk yield is in the Hills followed by Terai and lowest in the Mountains. Cattle contribute more in milk both in Terai (41.18 vs 39.11 %) and in the Mountain (9.51 vs 6.78 %) whereas the buffalo contribution is greater in the Hills (54.11 vs 49.31 %) (Table 19).