Russian Federation

by

G. Blagoveshchenskii, V. Popovtsev, Shevtsova, V. Romanenkov, Komarov

1. Introduction
2. Soils and Topography
3. Climate and Agro-ecological Zones
4. Ruminant Livestock Production Systems
5. The Pasture Resource
6. Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources
7. Research and Development Organizations and Personnel
8. References
9. Contacts

The Russian Federation (Russia) is the north-eastern part of Eurasia (see Figure 1). Its territory is more than 17,000,000 sq. km (the largest country in the world), which is 12.6 percent of the globe; it spans 11 time zones and spreads for more than 9,000 km from east to west and more than 4,000 km from north to south. Due to its size Russia has many landscapes, climatic and soil zones and rich flora and fauna. Forests occupy almost half of its territory - 45 percent, water - 4 percent, agricultural land - 13 percent, deer pastures - 19 percent, the rest - 19 percent. About 70 percent of its territory is occupied by vast plains. There are about 120,000 rivers with lengths over 10 km, their total length is 2,3000,000 km. The longest rivers are: Lena, Enisei, Ob’, Amur and Volga. There are about 2,000,000 fresh and salt lakes in the Federation. The biggest are: Baikal, Ladozhskoe, Onezhskoe fresh lakes, and the Kaspiyskoe sea - a salt lake.

Figure 1. Location of Russia [Click to view full map]

All kinds of mineral fuel are mined in Russia, the bulk being oil (including gas condensate) and natural gas. The Russian land border is about 20,000 km and Russia borders on fourteen countries: Kazakhstan (6,846 km), China (3,645 km), Mongolia (3,441 km), Ukraine (1,576 km), Finland (1,313 km), Byelorussia (9,59 km), Georgia (723 km), Estonia (294 km), Azerbaijan (248 km), Lithuania (227 km), Latvia (217 km), Poland (206 km), Norway (167 km) and North Korea (19 km). The coast along two oceans and twelve seas is more than 37,000 km.

Russia has seven federal okrugs (regions - see Figure 2), which consist of 89 administrative bodies: 49 oblasts, one autonomous oblast, 21 republics, 6 krais (territories), 10 okrugs (divisions) and two large metropolitan centres - Moscow and St. Petersburg.

Figure 2. Regions of Russia

Russia’s population is the sixth largest in the world; on 1 January 2001 it was 145,600,000 people (According to the World Factbook the July 2006 population was estimated at 142,893,540 with a growth rate of -0.37% - see Table 1; population density is 8.6 per sq. km. Russia is a multinational state and has more than 100 nationalities, with Russians making up more than four fifths of the population.

Recently there has been a redistribution of the work force which resulted in a decrease in the number of agro-industrial complex employees. This trend correlates with the general tendency in the country - workers are transferring to private business.

* Source: Goscomstat

The decrease in the number of people directly employed in agriculture is a result of such factors as the collapse of collective system of management, decrease in living standards of sovkhozes (state farm) employees, lack of funds in territorial and local budgets, lack of state support, dramatic decrease of agricultural construction, and low salary. Recently, some improvements of the agro-industrial complexes (AIC) of Russia have been seen, but the general social-economic situation in AIC is difficult. Despite the absolute increase of the gross value added the AIC quota in the country’s gross domestic product is only 7 percent.

Russia is in a risky zone for farming, because the average soil fertility level is low; moreover, great damage is caused by anthropic factors. Russia’s agricultural land is about 200,000,000 hectares, including over 120,000,000 ha arable, about 2,000,000 ha of fallow, 2,000,000 ha of perennial crops, and over 87,000,000 ha of permanent meadows and pastures. On average there is about 1.5 ha for each resident of the country.

In 1992, after the collapse of the USSR the so-called campaign on kolkhoz (collective farm) and sovkhozes (state farm) reorganization started which intended:

• Transfer of land and non-land means of production into the ownership of work collectives of agricultural enterprises,
• Division of these funds into individual shares and
• Re-registration of farms into one of the permitted legally-organized forms according to the current legislation of that date.

During recent years all kolkhozes and sovkhozes of the country have been re-organized. The majority, regardless of name, transformed into production co-operatives, where capital assets belong to a collective as share property and management is based on electoral co-operative principles. As a result of all reforms in the agrarian sphere a contradictory, rather sophisticated transitional structure of land ownership was formed: land owners are members of former kolkhozes and sovkhozes, land users are agricultural enterprises. Recently a small market in land shares has emerged (Table 2). Partly land belongs to individual farmers and families running domestic units.

Federal land legislation is quite liberal: it admits the right of private land ownership, and does not prohibit land transactions and foreign citizen ownership. But according to the Constitution land relations in Russian Federation are regulated by federal and regional legislation. Today 13 units of the Federation have their own land laws, where private ownership of land is very restricted or does not exist at all. Moreover, the Federal Law is not well enough developed; it does not guarantee enough property rights, and does not establish mechanisms for land transitions. The legislation is not observed properly, the modern system of real estate is at the stage of formation. That is why there is no reason to speak about a developed system of land private ownership in agriculture so far. At the moment the Russian Federation State Duma has adopted a Land Law, which may solve problems of land private ownership. So at present a new structure of agricultural enterprises has been established.. With market development in agriculture, big farms slowly evolve towards commercial corporate type enterprises.

* Source: Goscomstat

Farmers received the right to leave a collective farm with land and some property and to organize their own farm. This accelerated formation of individual farms. Nevertheless, most farmers stayed on large farms. Because of insufficiently considered policy the authorities’ expectations of quick formation of efficient farming did not come true. Today not more than 40,000 individual farmers out of 270,000 practice commercial production. Despite the fact that huge accumulated debts keep large agricultural production from collapse, the leading role in agriculture belongs to smallholdings (Table 3).

* Source: Goscomstat
** Agricultural land includes native and improved grassland and arable land

Though the significance of individual farms is increasing quite quickly, their share in agricultural production is small (Table 4). Correspondingly, their share of agricultural markets is not significant, and most likely this will not increase appreciably, but individual farms show alternative ways of production, create competition with traditional producers on some food markets and form new production chains.

* Former states and collective farms

** Agriculture production of small farms mainly for family consumption

*** Agriculture production of small farms for trade

The main change in the last few years is modification of the state’s function in agricultural and food markets (Table 5). The state changed quite quickly from market monopolist into an ordinary market agent, dealing with produce purchasing for regional and federal funds within the framework of its market quote. The unit weight of these purchases tends to decrease, though in animal husbandry the unit weight of state purchase is still high.

Lack of normal market infrastructure, or stable links with agents, sometimes leads to the other extreme: producers keep their old customers as best as they can, willingly taking risks of sale losses due to low prices or extremely protracted terms of payment for produce. This is especially typical of meat and dairy produce. Producers are "chained" to local processors; they agree to any terms, not knowing and not risking to look for alternative customers.

Many agricultural producers make contracts with the state on produce supply in exchange for fuel and lubricating materials or fertilizers. This credit enable them to get inputs necessary for planting or harvesting, but, on the other hand, ties producers with obligations to sell to state bodies on much worse terms than exist on the free market at the moment of payment for credit. Private goods credit occurs when there is lack of state means. Often it means terms more profitable in comparison with state credit, but not all producers agree to make contracts with private companies being afraid of non payment for the credit taken with new counteragents (the state may write off debt, but not private bodies).

As a result, today, subjects of agricultural activity, which are legal bodies, can be split into two groups that have managed to become established in these market conditions. The first one is about 40,000 individual, commercial farms, which is 15 percent of the number registered. The second is 3,000 - 4,000 (10 - 12 percent) of collective enterprises - joint stock companies, partnerships on trust, limited liability partnerships, reorganized kolkhozes and sovkhozes out of 27,000 rural enterprises.

At the same time there is another category of farms whose role increased dramatically in the nineties - the private domestic holdings of the rural people (Table 6). Today they produce half of all agricultural produce. And though their market share is not very high so far, their specific features are production efficiency, because nobody can run a private farm at a loss.

Animal husbandry was the most sensitive branch in restructuring of agriculture, and the least profitable. In the USSR the herds of all livestock were kept at a stable level by state subsidies. Recent processes led individuals and weak farms to get rid of livestock due to the impossibility of obtaining enough fodder, high energy prices and non-profitability of production. Due to the imbalance of exchange between agriculture and other branches of the economy, prices of industrial production and services used in agriculture increased 9,000 times from 1991, at the same time prices of agricultural products only increased 200 times. As a whole, herd decrease in the public sector is faster than on private individual holdings. Now the pace of herd reduction is slowing down (Table 7). It is linked to organizational measures taken recently, as a result of which slowing of herd reproduction and animal preservation improves and mortality falls.

*FAOSTAT data for 2002, 2004 and 2005.

There is a decrease in meat and meat foods production. The same applies to milk production and its resources for industrial processing (Tables 8, 9).

Apart from the decrease in consumption of animal products there is concern about inequality of consumption level in regions caused by lack of efficient organizational and material infrastructure connecting producing and consuming regions. Very often redistribution is blocked by local authorities, prohibiting food exports, which causes high differentiation of prices between regions.

International trade

Up to 2000 the decrease in export-import operation of agro-industrial complex of Russia was at a stable rate (Table 9).

At the same time, after three years of decrease, export of main goods of agroindustrial complex tends to increase (Table 10).

As far as fodder is concerned the tendency is the same (Table 11).

* internal economic affair

Agrarian policy in external trade of agricultural production in Russia is run according to Federal laws "State regulation of external economic affairs" (1995); "Customs tariff" (1993 with additions from 1995 and 1997); "Measures on protection of economic interests of Russian Federation on realization of external merchandise trade" (1998); as well as Russian Federation Presidential Decrees; regulations and directions of the Government of the Russian Federation.

These standard documents allowed:

Regulation of agricultural production external trade is done by tariff, non-tariff and combined measures. Tariff measures imply stated level of customs duty for imported and exported goods, which defends the country’s economic interests. Non-tariff measures (mainly different restrictions and inhibitory actions on import and export) are implemented by means of Russian Federation Presidential Decrees or federal laws. Combined measures - quotes on import and export.

Production of food (oat) units was over 79,000,000 tons per year in 1986-1990.

The most important landforms in Russia are plains, which occupy more than 1180 million ha (70.4% of the country). The relief of the plains is complicated depending on composition of rock deposits as well as denudation and accumulation processes. Most of the plains are at an altitude of less than 300 metres. In East Siberia and in the Far East the altitude of plain territories is between 300-600 metres. About half of the East European plain, the biggest part of the West Siberia plain and the northern part of the Far East are flat. Undulating slopes represent most of the East Siberia plain.

Mountains are the landform ranking second in Russia, most of them are below 1,000 m. Mountain areas comprise the Alpine-Gimalay belt, Tian-Shan up-lifting belt, the Middle and East Siberian Mountain highlands and the Pacific Ocean mountain belt. Plateau landforms are widely developed in Eastern Siberia and the Far East. They were formed as a result of relief levelling (denudation) during long-term periods. Undulating (5-8 %) and slightly undulating (2-5 %) relief is widespread on plateau landforms.

Soil information is based on a simplified version of the "Soil Map of Russian Federation" at scale 1:2,500,000 with classification according to national "Classification and diagnostics of the soils of the U.S.S.R." (1977) and the revised legend of the Soil Map of the World (1988). Figure 3 illustrates the Digital Soil Database for Russia at scale 1:500,000 (FAO, 1999).

Figure 3. Soil map [Click to view full map]

Two main soil types of the territory are Podzols and Gleysols, which occupy 22 and 16 percent of the total land area, respectively. Practically 80 percent of the country is under the dominant influence of cold and humid soil forming environments. 44 percent of the country is in continuous permafrost regions. Wetlands (221,000,000 ha), wet tundra (253,000,000 ha) and boreal coniferous forest are formed under conditions of excessive moisture.

The most agriculturally valuable major soil grouping - Chernozems - occupies about 94,000,000 ha, or less than 6 percent of the land area. Four major soil groupings also favourable for agriculture are Fluvisols, Greezems, Phaeozems and Kastanozems. Together they occupy about 160,000,000 ha, or approximately 10 percent of the land.

The main soil order associated with the taiga is soddy-podzolic soil (Podzoluvisols). Acid brownzems and sod-brownzems (Dystric and Gelic Cambisoils) are found in the Siberian part of the region. Flat interfluves are usually waterlogged, with predomination of podzolic peaty and peat boggy soils (Gleyic Podzoluvisols and Histosols, respectively).

Podzoluvisols occupy 207,400,000 ha, which corresponds to 12.4 percent of the soil cover in Russia. Podzoluvisols show some features of Podzols (a strongly bleached horizon) and of Luvisols (clay accumulation). These soils are well differentiated by texture and total composition, the general pattern of sesquioxides and clay fraction distribution is eluvio-illuvial. Podzoluvisols have an argic B horizon with an irregular or broken upper boundary resulting from deep tonguing of the E into the B horizon. The reaction is acid, with the pH increasing downward. The humus content is 3-7 percent in the humus horizon (5-12 cm), with noticeable decreasing downwards (0.2-0.5 percent in the E horizon). The typical properties are as follows: CEC changes in the profile depend on humus and clay fraction distribution; the soils are base-unsaturated, aluminium and hydrogen are common in the exchangeable complex. Mineralogical, granulometric and chemical composition are inherited or strongly connected with parent material properties. For example, residually calcareous sod-podzolic soils, which are formed from carbonate rocks, have a neutral or even slightly alkaline reaction in Bt/BtC horizons.

Gleyic Podzoluvisols and Histosols are formed on slow-drained terrain, characterized by seasonal surface waterlogging, or in relief depressions with relatively high ground water levels (flat plains, shallow depressions, river valleys and terraces, correlate to high and low moors). Flat and weakly dissected vast territory of the West Siberia lowland is a swampy plain, with waterlogging predomination within the south taiga zone. Gleyic Podzols are formed from sand and loamy sand parent material under excessive ground moistening on large alluvial and fluvio-glacial plains (polesye) in the taiga-forest zone.

Grey forest soils are formed as a result of specific soil processes under forest steppe vegetation. Based on difference in darkness and thickness of the humus horizon and expression of podzolized AhE or EB horizons, this soil group was subdivided on three sub-units: dark-grey (Haplic Greezems), grey (Haplic Greezems) and light-grey (Eutric Podzoluvisols). The grey forest soil group has the following profile:

O - forest litter horizon;

Ah - grey horizon of humus accumulation;

AhE (EB) - eluvial horizon with humus accumulation;

B - illuvial horizon.

The AhE (EB) horizon has a fine sub-angular structure with bleached fine material and humic bright cutans on ped faces (the last feature is usually absent in the forest-steppe of Central Siberia). Carbonates appear usually deeper than 1.5-2 m in various forms of accumulation. The humus content is the biggest in dark grey soils (5-12 percent in the Ah, with calcium-humate composition). Soil organic matter (SOM) stock in these soils ranges from 100-150 in light-grey soils up to 300 t/ha in dark-grey soils. Humus content decrease drastically after clear-cutting and during the subsequent cultivation. The reaction is acid to slightly acid in the topsoil of light grey and grey soils and close to neutral in the topsoil of dark grey soils. pH values become mostly acid in the lower part of the Ah or in AhE horizons, change to slightly alkaline downwards for soils with carbonates or neutral. The sum of exchangeable bases is 10-15 cmol(+)kg^-1 for light grey soils and 25-45 cmol(+)kg^-1 for dark grey soils. Base saturation is 70-95 percent, some exchangeable H or Al may be present in the upper horizons.

The distinctive features of grey forest soils are the accumulation of calcium, potassium and phosphorus in the topsoil as a result of biological accumulation processes. Properties of light grey soils closely correlate with those of Eutric Podzoluvisols and of dark grey forest soils - to chernozems. Soil cover exists as soil sequences - regular alternations, mostly due to meso-relief. The typical feature of the northern forest steppe is more intensive manifestation of the podzolic process in the upper slope positions. Interfluves are considered as the area of light grey forest soils predomination. Grey forest soils are common on the mid-slopes and dark grey soils - at the foot slopes with participation of groundwaters in their genesis. Sod-gleys (Umbric Gleysols) and meadow-boggy soils (Mollic Gleysols) are formed in depressions with seasonal surface waterlogging, under meadow and meadow-shrub vegetation. Within the southern part of region dark grey forest soils are situated in watersheds or on slopes alternating with Luvic Chernozems. Semi-hydromorphic soils are represented by meadow-chernozemic (Haplic Phaeozems) and meadow soils (Umbric Gleysols). The influence of more continental climate features is related with decreasing the thickness of Ah horizon and additional SOM and exchangeable base accumulation in the profile of grey forest soils.

Leached and typical chernozems (Luvic and Haplic Chernozems) are formed under grass steppes and meadows, which have net primary production (NPP) in the range 20-30 t/ha, with root biomass predomination (65-75 percent). The annual detrital losses amount to 50-55 percent of NPP, or twice more than litter fall of deciduous forests. Forest steppe chernozems have periodically percolated water regime, when leaching usually occurs once in ten years. Abundance of plant debris, enriched with nutrients (Ca, K, N) and absence of regular leaching during the time when decomposition processes are the most active favours nutrient accumulation in the upper horizons.

Periodical alternation of the wet and dry periods serves as a natural regulator of meso- and macro organisms activity and promotes formation of different end products of humification, including recalcitrant organic-mineral complexes. Humus accumulation is the leading soil forming process (mostly as a calcium-humate complex) and the characteristic feature of chernozems is a mollic A horizon with a moist chroma of 2 or less, which have a granular or subangular-granular structure. The reaction is neutral. The soils have high cation exchange capacity, base saturated (with the exchangeable Ca predomination). The distribution in the profile of clay and sesquoxides is undifferentiated. The lower parts of the Ah or AhB horizons are effervescent. General soil profile perturbation by burrowing fauna is a common feature. Typical chernozems can be considered as a central subtype of chernozem, with the most characteristic features of these soils.

Typical chernozems have the following profile: Ah-AhBk-BCk-Ck.

The humus horizons are subdivided into 2 parts: the Ah (45- 50 cm) is dark grey or black. They have a granular or subangular-granular structure. The AhBk has a browner colour with larger peds. The Ah+AhBk thickness is in the range of 70-130 cm. Native soils have O upper layer of plant detritus. The Bk horizon has a maximum of secondary carbonates. Humus content is 5-12 percent in the Ah with gradual decreasing downwards, SOM stock varies from 600 to 700 t/ha. Calcareous neoformations appear in the form of meld, mycelia, and veins, and below 2 m depth, as loess dolls.

Leached chernozems (Luvic Chernozems) are formed in colder climate compared with Haplic Chernozems. They are distinguished from typic chernozems by more pronounced differentiation of the humus fractional composition and deeper effervescence. It usually starts 30-40 cm deeper the lower boundary of the Ah horizon, resulting in formation of the carbonate-free Bt horizon. These soils do not have a carbonate horizon if formed on non-calcareous parent rocks. The Bt horizon has features of clay and sesquioxides illuviation, a dark brown colour, a dark cutans on the ped faces. The soil reaction in the Bt horizon is neutral or slightly acid.

Podzolized chernozems (Luvic Phaeozems) can be identified as an intergrade between chernozems and grey forest soil types. They have more pronounced eluvio-illuvial differentiation of the soil profile comparing with leached chernozems. The humus horizon is subdivided into 2 sub-horizons based on colour and structure, the lower part of it (the AhB horizon) has abundant bleached mineral particles cover the ped faces. The Bt horizon has weak but consistent features of clay illuviation. The thickness of the non-calcareous and humus-free layer is not less than 40-50 cm. The calcareous Bca horizon has carbonate accumulations in the form of veins, often segregated as white patches.

The morphological features of chernozems are subject to strong fluctuations in accordance with climatic regimes.

Mild climatic conditions of East Europe with a long warm periods accompanied by frequent precipitation in summer and also winter periods (snow, wet snow and snow with rain) favour high quantity of the biomass returned by plants to the soil and the intensive decomposition processes. The soils usually freeze up to 40 cm during one-two months. The soil formation is associated with the preferential upward water movement as well as high amplitudes of the soil solutions translocation. The thick mollic horizon (up to 1 m) is formed with moderate SOM accumulation (the humus content is 3-6 percent). SOM stock in these soils ranges from 300 to 600 t/ha.

In more cold and dry climate conditions of East Siberia the soils of the forest steppe region are distinguished from the East European chernozems by thicker mollic horizon with the humus content 6-12 percent and tongued lower boundary. SOM stock ranges from 300 to 700 t/ha (the highest values of soil organic C accumulation in the world). The soils are characterized by deep freezing (up to 1 m) during winter. Leaching takes place only in wet summers.

Low temperatures of West and Middle Siberia lead to more rapid and deep soil freezing (up to 2 m) and slow spring thawing. These soils have a shallow humus horizon (25-45 cm) with a well-expressed tongued or pocket-like lower boundary as a result of formation of frost wedges, which have been filled subsequently by the mollic horizon material. Low winter temperatures favour humus accumulation in the Ah horizon, with noticeable decreasing downward. As a result, SOM stock rarely exceeds 500 t/ha. the calcic horizon is a common feature, but it lies deeper comparedg with East Europe chernozems. The severe continental climate of West Siberia with negative mean annual temperatures, harsh winters with little snow, low annual precipitation and late summer temperature maximum gives rise to a specific soil moisture regime: dry spring and early summer and wet late summer. The latter period is characterized by a periodical leaching. The West Siberian chernozems (Glossic Chernozems) have a thinner humus horizon (45-55 cm) as compared to the other chernozems. The humus content (in the Ah) is 4-6 percent, with noticeable decreasing downward. The effervescence boundary is distinct. Calcareous accumulations are in the form of patches, veins and white soft carbonate spots. Soluble salts are not present in the profile as a result of periodical leaching and late summer precipitation maximum.

The main features of soil formation in the steppe region are nonpercolative water regime with leaching processes only in the upper horizons, carbonate accumulation at some depth (excluding chernozems which was formed in monsoon climate), less humus accumulation compared with the forest steppe soils, a weak solonetzic features in automorphic soils inherited from solonetzic parent material. In the northern part of the steppe zone ordinary chernozems (Haplic Chernozems) predominate, more southern analogues are southern chernozems (Calcic Chernozems).

Ordinary chernozems (Haplic Chernozems) of the European part of the steppe region have a distinct upper humus layer with a well-defined granular structure of several orders. The humus content in the upper Ah horizon is 5-8 percent, the reaction is neutral. The cation exchange capacity is about 40-55 cmol(+)kg^-1, the soils are base saturated. Effervescence appears in the humus horizon (the Ah or AhB), white soft carbonate spots in the B horizon and soluble salts and gypsum at a depth 300 cm. The distribution of either the clay fraction or the sesquioxides in the soil profile is undifferentiated.

Southern chernozems (Calcic Chernozems), which occupy 26,500 ha, or 1.6 percent of the land area of the country, are situated in the south of the steppe region, in dry grass steppes. The humus content (in the Ah) is 3-6 percent, that is lower compared with ordinary chernozems. They have a thinner humus horizon and the cation exchange capacity is 35-40 cmol (+) kg^-1. The reaction is neutral or slightly alkaline. Some features of solonetz processes, such as a prismatic block angular structure, are present as a result of the increased mineralization of the soil solution. Effervescence begins in the Ah horizon or on the soil surface. Carbonate concretions are in the form of white soft spots. Gypsum and soluble salts appear at a depth of 150-300 cm. In the dry steppe dark-chestnut and chestnut soils (Haplic Kastanozems) are zonal automorphic soils. This soil unit occupies 17,300,000 ha, which corresponds to 1.0 percent of the area of the country.

Chestnut soils have the following profile: Ah-AhB-Bkc-BCkc,y-Cy. The Ah horizon has a light-brown colour, crumbly structure. In virgin and fallow soils, weak fine platy structure is common on the surface. The transitional layer is subdivided into two parts: the AhB is brownish and unevenly collared by humus, compact. It is underlain by the Bkc horizon, which has more compact consistency, prismatic-crumbly structure and mottled colour. The Bk horizon has humus spots or local humus cutans on ped faces, as well as white soft calcium carbonate spots. The thickness of Ah+AhB+Bkc horizons decreases from 45 cm in the European part of the region to 25 cm in East Siberia. The BCkc,y is an illuvial carbonate horizon with abundant carbonate spots and some gypsum. The lower boundary of humus cutans reaches this horizon. In some profiles it is possible to subdivide the BCkc,y into two horizons. The lower part of the BCkc,y have a lack of humus illuvation features, has yellowish-brown colour and abundant CaCO₃ patches and spots. The Cy horizon lies at a depth of 150-200 cm. It contains considerable quantities of gypsum and, usually, soluble salts. This horizon is less compact and has more moisture as compared with the upper horizon. The humus content is usually in the range from 2.2-3.2 percent (arable soils) to 4 percent (virgin soils) in the Ah of clay and clay loam Kastanozems and 1.5-3 percent in more sandy soils. The CEC is 20-30 cmol (+) kg^-1 and exchangeable sodium forms 1.5-5 percent of CEC. The soil reaction changes from slightly alkaline or neutral (pH 7.2-7.4) in the upper horizons to alkaline (pH 8.2-8.5) in the lower ones.

In the north of the dry steppe region, where precipitation amount is higher, dark chestnut soils (Haplic Kastanozems) are formed under dry steppe vegetation. They differ from the chestnut soils in a more pronounced Ah horizon (Ah+AhB+Bkc horizons are 35-50 cm thick) and in increased humus content. The humus content of the Ah horizon varies within the limits of 3.2 (arable soils)- 5 percent (virgin soils) in clay and clay loams and 2.5-4 percent in sandy loams and loamy sands. Effervescence usually appears from 45-50 cm. Gypsum and soluble salt start from a depth of 2 m. The soil reaction changes from neutral in the upper horizons to slightly alkaline and alkaline in the lower ones. The CEC is 30-35 cmol (+) kg^-1. The exchangeable cations are mainly represented by Ca²⁺ or Mg²⁺.

Meadow chestnut soils (Haplic Phaeozems) are dispersed among chestnut and light chestnut soils. They are formed in relief depressions (flat ditches, gullies, micro-depressions) on slow-draining terrain (flat plains, river terraces, pre-mountain deluvial areas). They are formed under influence of excessive surface wetting, sometimes connected with high ground water table (2.5-5(7) m). Extra-water permits plant community of the herb species-grass-small bushes to exist as a continuous cover. The morphological properties correlate with those of the meadow chernozem soils. They differ from Kastanozems in more favourable water regime, in a more thick the Ah horizon, in a high humus content (4-6 percent, sometimes more than 8 percent in the Ah that gradually decreases with depth). The Ah horizon has sod in the upper layer and a dark-grey colour. Exchangeable sodium occupies not more than 2 percent of the CEC.

The characteristic feature of the dry steppe is high soil heterogeneity (soil complexes). Soil complexes represent alteration of small (5-30 m²) spots of different interdependent soil types or subtypes, linked to the micro relief elements. The latter is connected with redistribution of scarce water reserves between the different parts of micro-catenas. Soil heterogeneity has a tendency to increase southward. The most complex soil cover in the region is in lowlands (Caspian and West Siberia lowlands) or depressions (Manych and Tourgay depressions). The agricultural value of soil complex components may differ, but the potential land utilization determined by the properties of the soil complex as a whole.

Russia's far northern location and harsh climate causes most of the area to be unsuitable for crop production. Most rainfed agricultural activities are located between 40 degrees N and 60 degrees N latitude. The transitional seasons of autumn and spring here are short, creating a brief window of opportunity for crop seeding and harvest. Higher latitudes are associated with long, cold winters, and short, hot summers that limit the growing season. The distribution of cultivated land, perennial crops, cultivated forage/grazing as well as forest and natural vegetation is shown on Figure 4. This figure reproduces a generalized version of the map "Land categories of the USSR" at a scale 1:4,000,000 with division of land use into 6 top level classes. This map complements the map "Agricultural regionalization of the USSR" at a scale 1:4,000,000 (Figure 5), which depicts regions with the different agricultural intensity as well as farming specialization.

Figure 4. Land categories of Russia [Click to view full map]

Figure 5. Agroregions of Russia [Click to view full map]

In this brief review the representation of the agricultural regions relies on the map "Soil-geographical regionalization of the USSR", considering agricultural use within natural agricultural regions. A considerable spatial variability of climatic conditions in Russia such as large annual, daily, and day-to-day ranges in temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall are accounted for identification the main natural agricultural zones based on temperature and precipitation ranking. Mean January and July air temperatures for the territory of Russia are shown in Figures 6 and 7. The amount of precipitation, growing season and land resources are connected with the type and intensity of agriculture in a particular region.

Figure 6. Source: Lydolph 1990

Figure 7. Source: Lydolph 1990

Based on the sum of active annual temperatures two main agricultural climatic zones are identified. They include all diversity of the main natural agricultural regions to characterize regularities and distribution of the natural vegetation as well as Precipitation/Evaporation ratio over the country. The territory of the each region was characterized based on lowland soil provinces division, and on climate regimes, the soils cover zonal features, the percentages of land use, types of predominant agricultural crops and husbandry as well as cropland improvement and reclamation.

Cold tundra - north taiga (boreal forest) zone exists as a continuous belt across the high latitudes of Eurasia. The south boundary coincides with the annual sum of average daily temperatures 400 - 600^o C for the period with T>10^o C (the sum of active temperatures). Winters are harsh, arctic air masses predominate during the whole year. Permafrost, cryogenic soil features are spread throughout the entire territory. Mean annual temperature ranges are -10 to -14° C, with mean temperatures -25 to -30° C in winter and less than -5° C in summer. The frost-free period is 12- 14 days in a year, annual precipitation is about 150 mm, mainly as snow, including the summer period. Harsh climatic conditions restrict agriculture to the sub-arctic zone of the agroregion, where reindeer breeding remains the most important activity on vast tundra territories. Lichen tundra in winter and tundra with predominating mosses, sedge-mosses and dwarf birch thicket in summer are the main types of pastures suitable for reindeer. Common adverse soil phenomena are low intensity of biochemical processes, lack of nutrients, acidity, unfavourable air and heat regime.

Due to climatic conditions, the development of farming, dairy cattle husbandry and poultry would require large capital investments. Sparse agricultural farms, represented mainly by glasshouse enterprises with vegetable production are situated around big cities-industrial centres. Perennial grazing of tundra soils is an effective practice, as it is less time-consuming and a more successful technology compared to fodder crop growing.

In the north taiga farming is also constrained by climate. Agriculture is mainly restricted to individual farms of industrial enterprises or to private vegetable gardens and subsistence farming. Commercial forestry is the main activity in the economy of this region. Crop and cattle husbandry is mainly practiced to meet the local needs of the sparsely populated territory. Highly developed agriculture is only around big cities.

Moderate climate zone is characterized by a wide range of environmental conditions varying from the middle taiga (boreal forest) in the north to the desert in the south of this belt, as a result of combined influence of maritime air masses and the vast territory with climate continental in natural.

Climate aridity increases gradually southward. Continental climate features are present to a very small extent in the western part of Russia and quite pronounced in Trans-Baikal and Pre-Amur, with changing winters from no-snow mild to harsh with thick snow cover. The sum of active (>10^o C) annual temperatures range from 1600 to 4000^o C. The belt represents intensive crop and cattle rearing zone, with predomination of pastoral cattle rearing and restricted crop production zones southward. The zone, which encompasses the biggest part of Russia, can be subdivided into the following natural regions: taiga (middle and south), forest steppe, steppe, dry steppe, semi-desert and desert.

South taiga region is situated between 56-58 degrees (50 degrees in the west part) to 60 degrees northern latitude, with the south and north bounds coinciding with the sum of active annual temperatures 160- 2500^o C and 1400-1600^o C, respectively. Climate is temperate to moderate continental in the west, severe continental to very severe continental in Siberia and monsoon in Far East. Mean temperature range is -2 to -32^o C in January and 16 to - 2 ^o C in June (the coldest and the warmest month, cons.) Annual precipitation ranges are 500 - 700 and 350 - 500 mm in the European and Asian parts of the region, which according to the ratio of precipitation/evaporation can be classified as excessively wet or wet.

The climate favours natural coniferous (gymnosperm) tree domination with deciduous species or mixed forest (coniferous and deciduous species) with a diversified herb layer. In European Russia fir (Picea abies) and oak (Quercus) are dominant with hazelnut (Corylus avellana) in under storey. Pine woods or mixture of oak and pine species are typical for light soils. In Ural and across West Siberia birch (Betula) and aspen (Populus tremula) are common components of deciduous or mixed (larch and cedar species) forests.

Sufficient precipitation and satisfactory temperature regimes cause this area to be more suitable for crop production. Common crops in the European part of this region are vegetables and potatoes, cereals, sugar beet, hops, tobacco, fruit crops. The Asian part of the agroregion has a comparatively shorter growing period and a less favourable temperature regime as a result of a more continental climate. West and East Siberia are regions of highly developed meat-dairy husbandry and crop farming. Grain (mainly spring wheat) -fallow rotations are common. Fodder crops, natural grasslands and hay lands are of great importance. In the surroundings of the urban centres there is very intensive agricultural production of vegetables and potatoes as well as fruit crops and berry shrubs. The agricultural sector of the Far East has been mainly developed around Khanka lake, in the vicinity of large cities, and along the Trans-Siberian railway line. Agriculture has specialized in fisheries, hunting locally reindeer herding, dairy cattle husbandry. The main crops are cereals (wheat, rice (5.2 percent of cultivated land), soybean (15 percent), buckwheat) and potatoes.

South taiga agroregion is an intensive crop and cattle rearing zone, arable lands occupy 17 percent of the total area. The agroregion has a diversified agricultural land use: dairy and meat husbandry, potato cultivation, intensive cultivation of wheat, barley and other grain crops, intensive vegetable cultivation (for example, near the Oka river), flax and hemp (Cannabis sativa) cultivation. Potato cultivation for commercial and non-commercial use is typical for this region. This agroregion have the biggest area available for expansion of agricultural lands, including those for intensive haymaking and livestock grazing, comparing with the other natural zones, but high expenditures to improve soil through reclamation are necessary. Periodical liming and high rates of mineral and organic fertilizers are necessary for intensive crop growing.

Forest steppe region is situated in the centre of Eurasia, southward of the taiga zone. The area is situated between 43-45° (a south boundary in the Pre-Caucasian steppes) to 50-51° north, with 45° east as a west boundary. Climate is moderately continental to severely continental, with increasing aridity southward and eastward and continental climate features in the east direction. Precipitation deficit is a common feature of the territory (the range of precipitation/evaporation ratio is 0.7 -1 and 0.5-0.66 in the northern and the southern part of the region). The range of active annual temperatures sum is a characteristic of great variability: from 2400-3200 to 400-1800^o C. Mean temperature range in January is -4 to -25^o C and the growing season is 188 to 93 days, diminishing from the west to the east. Mean summer temperature are quite close within the zone: 18 to 20^o C. Geographical features of the West Siberian part of the region are severe winters, lower precipitation and more continental climate comparing with the European part. There is periodical precipitation deficit connected with the transitional position of the region between the wet and dry districts. Deep gullies and valleys are common, especially in the European part of the region. These strongly affect soil erosion processes and there is substantial surface water re-distribution between the different parts of mezo- and micro-catenas. In Asia the main terrain components are the West Siberian lowland (the southern part) and undulating sloping territories of Altai and Sayany mountains.

Agricultural activities are well developed, mainly based on intensive crop growing (cropland accounts for 71 percent of the area used as arable in Russia), meat-dairy cattle breeding, pig and sheep breeding, poultry. The region produces cereals (winter and spring wheat, rye, and corn), grain legumes, industrial crops (flax, Cannabis sativa, sugar beet, tobacco), vegetables, and fodder crops, fruits and berries. The natural vegetation before the intensive cultivation period is supposed to have been diverse: grass steppe was alternating with meadows composed of numerous steppe herb species, groves of deciduous species (broad-leaved in the European part of the region with predomination of Quercus and accompanying lime (Tilia), Fraxinus, Ulmus, Acer platanoides). In the Ural zone, birch (Betula) and larch-broadleaved species were predominate. Birch and aspen (Populus) were a common component of deciduous forests with tall herb layer across the West Siberian lowland. Soil cover is represented by grey forest soils (Haplic Greezems), chernozems podzolized (Luvic Chernozems), chernozems leached (Luvic Chernozems), chernozems typical (Haplic Chernozems) and meadow chernozem soils (Gleyic Chernozems). These soils extend as a continuous belt from Carpathian mountains to the Yenisey river, more to the east they exist as patches ("islands") allocated to slopes of the Middle Siberian highland landforms or intermountain depressions of East Siberia. Main parent materials are loess, loess-like loams and heavy loams. Clay fraction content in the parent material of the European part of the region has a tendency to increase eastward; the west slopes of the Pre-Volga upland represent a boundary of loams and fine loams.

The type of agriculture development as well as differentiation in intensity within the region is mainly connected with diversified climate and soil conditions. Agricultural lands in the western European part of the agroregion account for 20-80 percent, the fractions of hay land and pastures are in the range 4-12 percent and 3-7 percent, respectively. The cultivation of sugar beets and grain crops have a main importance, with highly intensive production of such crops as winter wheat, corn, sunflower, hoop, potatoes, cucurbitaceous crops and fruits concentrated in collective farms. In the southern-west areas of European Russia cultivation of seed fruits, grapes, vegetables and locally tobacco is well developed. Sometimes catch crops are grown in crop rotations. Among soil degradation processes soil erosion is common. Local farming systems include measures aimed at protecting soil from erosion: cross-slope tillage, decreasing runoff, snow storage.

Agricultural lands in the central European part of the northern and southern forest steppe account for 47 and 72 percent, respectively. The fractions of hay land and pastures are in the range 3-6 percent. Grain crops are mostly cultivated. Local climatic conditions are favourable for growing spring and winter cereals, industrial crops (sunflower, sugar beet), fodder crops, fruits and berries. Soil protection from erosion, soil moisture protection measures and artificial afforestation has a primary importance, especially for highland plain territories. Reclamation of meadow chernozemic solonetzic soils (Phaeosems Luvic) and solods (Planosols Eutric) and prevention of secondary sodic salinisation in irrigation agriculture is important for the Oka-Don lowland.

Agricultural lands in the forest steppe zone of the Volga-Ural interfluvial account for 46-58 percent. The hay land and pastures are in the range 5-6 and 5-11 percent, respectively. Grain crops cultivation has the main importance, with limited possibility of winter cereals growing due to severe winter conditions. Natural conditions are favourable for grain legumes, potatoes, vegetables, sugar beet cultivation. Soil protection from water erosion and soil moisture protection measures, seeding of perennial grasses and cross-slope tillage have a primary importance, as well as local wind erosion protection (e.g. in Bashkiria).

Cropland accounts for 15 and up to 36 percent of the northern and southern forest steppe, situated between Ural Mountains and the Ob River. Hay lands account for 10-12 percent and pastures - for 7-15 percent of the total area. Dairy-meat husbandry and grain corn (mainly spring wheat) growing are practiced. Flax cultivation is of great importance. Local farming practices include measures for water accumulation in soil, such as conservation tillage; protection from deep freezing based on snow storage, chemical reclamation of solonetzic soils, artificial drainage of boggy soils. Seeding of perennial grasses in crop rotations is of great importance.

Cropland, hay land and pastures account for 41, 10 and 10 percent of the agroregion, situated between the Ob and the Yenisey rivers, mainly concentrated in the southern part of the forest steppe. Grain growing is common. Meat -dairy husbandry is practiced. Spring wheat, sugar beet, sunflower, flax, potatoes and vegetables are of great importance. Soil-protective measures include soil water accumulation, protecting soil from erosion, local reclamation in the mining areas (e.g. Kuzbass).

The forest steppe east of the Yenisey River (including the Far East steppe area) is in patches ("islands") allocated to the southern part of the Krasnoyarsk Krai and Irkutsk Region. It is the province of the very intensive production of grain as well as intensive livestock dairy and wool specialization. Soil water and heat protection measures are of great importance. Winter erosion is a common feature in the pre-mountains areas. The region is suited to the early maturing cultivars.

Steppe region is situated to the south of the forest steppe zone and exists as a continuous belt from the west Russian border to Altai Mountains. More to the east it have a patchy occurrence on the slopes of inter-mountain depressions reaching the west slopes of Big Khainag ridge. Climate is warm and dry, P/E coefficient is 0.44-0.47. Typical climate features are a regular moisture deficit of vegetation periods, quite close mean summer temperatures (20-24°C in the western part and 17-21°C in the eastern part of the region), distinct difference of mean winter temperatures (-2 to -10°C in the western part and up to -24-27°C in the eastern part of the region). Range of active annual temperatures sum is a characteristic of great variability: from 2300-3500 to 1500-2300^o C. The growing season is 180 to 97 days, diminishing eastwards.

The natural vegetation is subdivided into 2 subzones: herbaceous-sod-forming gra