The role of fodder production is increasing in importance in modern Russian agriculture, providing the base for animal husbandry as well as for maintaining soil fertility on arable land, preserving landscapes and biodiversity. Forage is now the main source of livestock feed, accounting for over two thirds of the total. Dynamic growth of forage crops productivity before 1990 was followed by lower harvests and reduction of forage production, especially during the first years of the Perestroika period, and some unsteady stabilisation during the last 3-4 years. (Table 12 percentage of previous year).

The main reasons for forage production decrease on arable land are:

Expansion of the use of forage legumes and mixtures with grasses is the strategic direction for improving sown grassland. Legumes are the basic source of natural nitrogen - the most important nutrient limiting grassland and other agricultural crops’ efficiency. The renewed attention to legumes has come about because they:

- enable increased efficiency of natural grassland, perennial grass on arable land and subsequent crops in the rotation;

- reduce expenditure on nitrogenous fertilizers;

- increase nutritional value and palatability of forage ensuring less expensive and more effective systems of ruminant production;

- produce high-quality, ecologically safe fodder and livestock products to protect the environment from pollution.

Successful use of legumes depends on their adaptation to climatic and soil conditions, and also ways (grazing, cutting) and intensity of use and symbiosis with soil micro-organisms. More than 1,800 species of legume are described in the flora of Russia. Legumes make up 7-8 percent of the vegetative cover of fodder land in Russia.

Now Trifolium pratense, Trifolium repens, Medicago sativa are the most widespread legumes both in natural grassland improvement and in perennial grass establishment on pastures. Lotus corniculatus, Onobrychis, Melilotus alba, M. officinalis and some others have less significance. According to generalised data by D. M. Priashnikov, total nitrogen fixed by Medicago can be 300 kg/ha (up to 500-600), and Trifolium - 150-160 kg/ha (up to 250-300). Thus average nitrogen retained in the soil after grass harvest is up to 100 and 75-100 kg/ha.

Trifolium pratense is the main perennial legume of the forest zone of European Russia, in taiga and semi-taiga zones of Siberia and the Far East. It is feasible to have larger areas of it in the forest steppe zone and foothill areas of Northern Caucasus. Trifolium can be grown on well watered soil in the steppe. Trifolium pratense occupies about half the area of sown perennial pasture on arable land. Trifolium pratense yield in northern and east regions is 6-8 t/ha, in central and western areas of a forest zone of European Russia 8.5-10 t/ha. Clover stands producing 10 t/ha contain more than 500 kg of nitrogen, including more than 350 kg / ha of symbiotic nitrogen. In Western and East Siberia Trifolium pratense makes up 20-25 percent from the sown perennial swards area.

Medicago sativa, M. falcata are the leading fodder crops of the forest-steppe and steppe. Nevertheless it is possible to expand Medicago growing in the forest zone of European Russia by 2-3 times. Medicago yield in central, southern and east areas of the forest zone of the European part is 8-10 t/ha. Medicago proportion in field grass planting of the European part and Western Siberia is 40-45 percent.

Onobrychis viciifolia, is unsuited to acid soil, so is limited to black soil forest - steppe and steppe zones. Melilotus is an unbeaten crop for saline soils. In European Russia in the forest - steppe and steppe zones their spread can be 10-20 percent, in Western Siberia - approximately 30 percent, in East Siberia - about 5 percent.

To resolve the need for soil enrichment by biological nitrogen special importance belongs to grassland establishment based on mixtures of legumes (Blagoveschensky, 2000). High efficiency was shown by mixtures of Trifolium pratense with Medicago on sub-acid and near neutral soil, Lotus corniculatus with Trifolium pratense on more acid soil. Such mixtures have steadier and level yields over years, productive longevity, increase of protein output, increase of soil organic matter and nitrogen, increase of biological activity and other important properties of soil, low consumption of labour for cultivation.

Establishment of multicomponent legume mixtures in rotation with cereals for forage is a priority in field forage production systems for cattle farms. The proportion of perennial forage legumes in grain crop rotations depends on both provision of forage produced on natural grassland and on grass participation in support of soil natural fertility. Grain-perennial pasture crop rotation with a high proportion of mixtures saturated with legumes provides balanced manufacture of high protein forage. Such systems have the conditions for better use of photosynthetic active radiation, arable land efficiency is 50-60 GDj /ha ME, that is 1.5 times more than in traditional crop rotations. The proportion of biological resources in production process is about 60 percent. Seed yield is 0.2-0.4 t/ha. In addition, together with Trifolium roots and litter the soil acquires more than 150 kg / ha of biological nitrogen which enables subsequent high and steady crop yields.

Medicago cultivars with high yield (8-10 t/ha) and seed production (250 kg / ha), increased frost resistance and symbiotic fixing have been created. High coenosis stability is a specific feature of the new pasture variety of this plant. Salt resistant cultivars of Medicago have been bred for Russian conditions.

More and more attention is paid to Galega, one of the new fodder legume crops. Russia has 2 out of 11 existing species of Galega (Galega orientalis and Galega officinalis). Specific features of Galega orientalis are high efficiency of fodder mass, nitrogen-fixing ability, productive longevity, eight and more years. This crop has large ecological plasticity; it grows on sod-podzolic, grey forest soil and black soil with reaction close to neutral; drained peat bogs and briefly flooded flood plain backwaters suit it. Successful cultivation is possible at precipitations of 450-500 mm; at lower precipitation if irrigated. Galega orientalis is disease and pest resistant. It accumulates 140 kg / ha of biological nitrogen and more than 5 t/ha of dry matter with root and stubble. It is a good precursor for other crops. Galega orientalis is an entomophilous plant, and compared to Trifolium pratense is more often visited by bees and bumblebees, which promotes stable (0.4 t/ha and above) seed yield. It is used for green chop, haylage and hay.

In less favourable ecological conditions for legumes, mixtures of perennial grasses are used, the efficiency of which may be essentially increased by use of new highly - productive cultivars and mineral nitrogen. Nevertheless, it is expedient to keep the pure grass proportion on arable land below 25 percent of areas for cutting. The highest proportion (from 40 up to 50 percent) of sown grass will remain in northern regions of the European part, East Siberia and the Far East. Grass such as Phleum, Bromopsis inermis, Alopecurus, Festuca pratensis prevail, Arrhenatherum, Poa pratensis, Festuca rubra, occur less often. Recently new cultivars of Bromopsis inermis have been bred with yields of 10 - 13 t/ha and 0.3 - 0.5 t/ha seeds; also new cultivars of Alopecurus are being developed using methods of synthetic populations with yields of 10 t/ha and 0.2 t/ha seeds; new cultivars of Lolium perenne are adapted to harsher ecological conditions.

Using legumes is the main method of increasing productivity and improving natural pastures, meadows and arable land in most regions. In the forest zone of European Russia the productivity of improved grass-legume pastures with tetraploid cultivars and occasional irrigation is 6,000 - 7,000 fodder units per hectare, the accumulation of symbiotically fixed nitrogen in above-ground mass is up to 120 - 140 kg/ha and more (Kutuzova et al., 1998). In less intensive systems, without irrigation and fertilizing, the productivity of improved grass-leguminous pastures is more than 3,000 f.u./ha, nitrogen removal with harvest is more than 80 kg/ha, accumulation of biological nitrogen is more than 30 kg/ha. Improved pasture establishment based on mixed grass without fertilizer using mineralization of natural grass stand sod organic matter and with 50 kg/ha of nitrogen in soil ensures a productivity level of more than 2,000 fodder unit / ha, which is 1,000 f. u. less compared to legume-grass mixtures.

Grass-legume pasture productivity significantly increases with organic fertilisation to more than 4,000 f. u. / ha; nitrogen removal with harvest is more than 100 kg/ha, including more than 40 percent from soil, almost 25 percent from organic fertilizers and one third due to symbiotic fixation. Such a system should be used on organic grassland farms.

Grass-legume pastures treated with phosphorous-potash fertilizers ensure productivity level of 4,000 - 5,000 f. u. / ha. At the same time the highest - almost 70 kg/ha- accumulation of symbiotically fixed nitrogen is provided. The same productivity of grass pastures can be achieved at N120 fertilization (Blagoveschensky et al, 1999). Such a system of grass-legume grass stand establishment and phosphorous-potash fertilisation is more feasible for large agricultural enterprises, where manure, as a rule, is used for crop fertilisation on arable land.

Use of N100 with accompanying PK for legume-grass pastures increases productivity to 5,000 f. u./ha, but additional mineral nitrogen fertilization of legume-grass pastures decreases the accumulation of biological nitrogen by 3 times. It causes a decrease of legume yield by 2 times and available nitrogen has a negative influence on nodule bacteria activity and symbiotic nitrogen fixation intensity.

Using legumes for pasture improvement ensures both harvest and animal productivity increase. Productivity of cows grazing on natural mixed grass pastures is 9 - 11 kg of milk per day. Grazing improved pastures of traditional composition (Trifolium pratensis, Trifolium repens, Phleum and Festuca pratensis) ensures daily yields of 14 - 16 kg per cow and 4 ton annual yield. Cows with annual productivity of 5 - 6 tons are fed barley in summer.

Trifolium repens and Lolium perenne ensure significant advantages at pasture establishment. This technology is implemented in the forest zone of Russian Federation by the Tacis "Beef and Dairy Project" FD RUS 9603. Cows with annual productivity of 6 - 8 t and more have average day yield of 20 - 25 kg grazing on such a pasture. Russian cultivars of Trifolium repens are more frost resistant than imported ones, and Lolium perenne cultivars occupy the middle position amongst 15 western European cultivars (Blagoveschensky et al, 2000). Pasture improvement based on new cultivars Trifolium repens and Lolium perenne have great prospects, especially with global climate warming, because 50 - 80 percent of Lolium perenne dies in severe winters.

For stable and efficient pasture fodder supply farmers keep the most productive natural grass stands, improved with traditional grass - legume mixtures, as well as clover-ryegrass pastures established with adapted cultivars for adequate agricultural and ecological conditions. Productivity of improved sown grass-legume meadows in the forest zone is 3000-5000 f.u./ha, in the forest-step zone - 3000-4000 f. u./ha. Bacterial preparations increase the productivity of sown legumes. Inoculation of these plants with efficient nodulating bacteria increases the nitrogen fixation from 20 - 30 percent in natural conditions up to 40 - 60 percent.

Grass mixture composition for land improvement is chosen bearing in mind agro-ecological conditions and pasture. Dactylis glomerata dominates on sown pastures on loamy soils of European Russia forest zone, Bromopsis inermis - on sandy loam soil. Pasture legumes here consist of Trifolium repens and Trifolium pratensis; on more acid soil - Lotus corniculatus, on drained peat bogs - Trifolium hybridum: in the south of the zone - Medicago sativa. Lolium perenne, Festuca pratensis, Phleum pratensis, Poa pratensis are used in mixture with legumes, Alopecurus pratensis - on drained peat bogs. Sown grass meadows on flood plains consist of Digraphis arundinacea, on uplands with loamy soil Dactylis glomerata, on flooded plains - Alopecurus pratensis, on sandy loam soil - Bromopsis inermis, on drained peat bogs and flooded plain - Agrostis alba. Grass - legume grasslands consist of Trifolium pratense, on drained peat bogs - Trifolium hybridum, on acid soil - Lotus corniculatus, on soil with neutral pH - Medicago sativa.

In Siberian forest-tundra and northern taiga only grass is sown, in forest zone - grass-legumes. Five or six grasses dominate in forest - tundra zone: Phleum pratensis, Festuca rubra, Beckmannia syzigachne, Agropyron sibiricum, Alopecurus pratensis and Alopecurus ventricosus. This composition extends to the south, including Agropyron tenerum, Festuca pratensis on upland, Digraphis inermis and Agrostis gigantea on flood plains; in southern taiga there are also legumes: Trifolium pratense and Medicago on upland, Trifolium hybridum on drained peat bogs.

In forest-steppe and steppe zones preference is given to legumes in sown grassland establishment, because they bring better yields and increase soil fertility.

For a long season of green chop provision without quality decrease, pastures of different maturity are established. For early maturity in forest-steppe zone grassland with Dactylis glomerata, in the south, on pastures - Elymus; for medium term maturity - Bromopsis inermis, Festuca pratensis of forest-steppe and steppe zones Onobrychis and Agropyron prevail on meadows - Roegneria fibrosa, Medicago; for late maturity - Medicago, Agropyron pectiniforme v. glaucum, Elytrigia intermedia. Medicago and Onobrychis are the main legumes on slopes because they are drought resistant and do not require very fertile soil. Trifolium pratense and Medicago are used in mixture on northern slopes of forest-steppe.

Bromopsis inermis and Festuca pratensis are the main grasses in the forest-steppe, under favourable moisture conditions they are replaced by Phleum pratensis, and in the northern steppe Arrhenatherum elatius, Agropyron pectiniforme v. glaucum and Elymus are the main grasses. Bromopsis inermis replaces Bromopsis riparia on eroded slopes of the steppe zone. Roegneria fibrosa is an early maturing variety in Siberia.

Bromopsis inermis or Bromopsis riparia with Medicago are sown on deep solonetz soil with weak and medium level of salinisation. Grass mixtures of Melilotus in combination with Bromopsis riparia, Agropyron pectiniforme, Agropyron sibiricum on medium solonetz. Melilotus is sown on shallow solonetz. In northern forest steppe on shortly flooded plains Medicago could be replaced with Trifolium pratense or the two could be mixed; on irrigated pastures Trifolium repens is grown.

Poa pratensis is added to pastures of middle flooded grasslands in the northern and central forest - steppe. When grassland is flooded for more than 30 days and used for hay, Bromopsis inermis along with Digraphis arundicacea and Beckmannia vulgare is highly productive and long standing.

When limans are flooded for a short time, mixtures of Medicago and Onobrychis with most grasses are sown early in spring: Medicago - where the ground water is deep; Melilotus - on saline soil. Bromopsis inermis, Alopecurus pratensis, Elytrigia repens and Agrostis gigantea survive medium term flooding well when average temperature is over 10 C. Grass-legume mixture of Bromopsis inermis and Medicago, Elymus trachicaulus survive long flooding well (more than 30 days).

In the forest-steppe zone when grassland is cut for hay many times (3 -4 cuts per season) grass mixtures are similar to those in the steppe, but Trifolium repens and Arrhenatherum are not used. Medicago is replaced by Trifolium pratense in the northern part of Western Siberia. To provide drought-resistant mixtures when irrigation is not regular and air is dry in summer they are enriched with Agropyron pectiniforme in Western Siberia or Elymus sibiricus, Roegneria in Eastern Siberia. On big and medium river flood plains and drained bogs with enough nitrogen fertilizer pastures are of Bromopsis inermis + Festuca pratensis + Phleum pratense in all regions; Bromopsis inermis + Agropyron sibiricum in Eastern Siberia.

In the steppe zone when grassland is cut many times (5 -6 cuts per season) Medicago with one grass, on pastures - two grasses. In European part, Western and Eastern Siberia pure stand Medicago sativa is productive on irrigated meadows. On flood plains of medium-size and big rivers and on low grasslands Bromopsis inermis in pure stand or mixed with Elymus trachycaulus are sown.

Legumes-grass swards are established in favourable mountain regions: low- middle- and partly high mountains of European Russia and low mountains of Asian Russia.

Pastures for sheep are sown with highly active low grasses and legumes resistant to intensive close grazing: Poa pratensis, Festuca rubra, Festuca rupicola and Trifolium repens for patches with enough moisture and Medicago for dry patches. In middle- and low mountains of Asian Russia sheep pastures are sown with Elymus trachycaulon and Bromopsis inermis. Trifolium repens is the basis for artificial pastures for cattle in European Russia; it is used on soils of adequate moisture in low-, middle- and high mountains in European Russia and in low- and middle mountains in Asian Russia.

Pastures for cattle consist of Festuca pratensis, Phleum pratense with addition of Poa pratensis on soils with sufficient moisture right up to high mountains. Dactylis glomerata is a part of sward in low- and middle mountains of European Russia. In high land of Asian Russia pasture swards are established from Bromopsis inermis. In the Asian part preference is given to Elymus trachycaulus, Bromopsis inermis. Grass-legume swards for hay, consist in European Russia of Trifolium pratense right up to high mountains with enough moisture, Medicago and Onobrychis in low- and middle mountains, in Asian part mainly in low mountains and in some parts of middle mountains. In European Russia Phleum pratense, Festuca pratensis, sown with Bromopsis inermis right up to high mountains, in Asian part - Dactylis glomerata in low mountains, Bromopsis inermis, Elymus trachycaulus right up to high mountains. Sown pastures are normally established in low and middle mountains on 10 degree slopes, rarely steeper. In high mountains sown swards are rarely established and only on gentle slopes.

To improve arable land in northern deserts or semi-deserts, plants with low transpiration coefficient are used. Grass-legume mixtures are suitable for depressions; Medicago caerulea, Onobrychis arenaria, Melilotus, Elymus sibiricus, Agropyron pectinatum, Kochia are used. Shallow and stony, saline soils with a dense gypsum layer close to the surface and southern slopes are not suitable for improvement.

Natural grassland improvement based on grass mixtures is used firstly on lands with extreme ecological conditions, unsuitable for legumes: high salinity or acidity, at long-term flood of limans and flood plains Grasses at high ecologically safe levels of nitrogen fertilizer are more productive than grass-legume grassland in favourable ecological conditions. There are economically sound advantages of productive grassland establishment on big farms, on land far from cowsheds for hay. There are advantages in combination of grass-legumes and grass lands, fertilised with nitrogen fertilizers.

Enrichment of grassland flora by oversowing into existing swards is significant in the increase of improved natural meadows. Oversowing enables increasing natural grassland productivity by 1,000-2,000 f. u. /ha. Cost is 3-6 times less than full change of grassland. Oversowing with legumes increases fodder quality, especially protein content. Enrichment of grassland with legumes is equal to application of 30 - 160 kg/ha of mineral fertilizers. Important advantage of meadow and pasture improvement is keeping agricultural land in constant use; oversowing enables restoration of degraded grasslands to maintain the environment and stop erosion of slopes and flood plains.

Grass oversowing in forest and forest-steppe zones is mainly on thin old upland natural grasslands, depressions, flood plain meadows of normal moisture, thin grass stands of pastures, patches where bushes and tussocks that occupied less than 20 percent of territory were removed, with Deschampsia caespitosa no more than 7-10 percent.

Oversowing is a way of periodically renewing legumes in grasslands. In forest-steppe and steppe zones of European part it is efficient on grass-mixed herbs of flood plains and limans when weeds and toxic plants have been removed. On sheep pastures oversowing is done when grass stand is thin because of too much intensive weed control. Oversowing is usually not effective on natural grassland on plains and slopes in steppe zone on the border of Europe and Asia - Ural, and in Siberia because of lack of moisture for establishment. Oversowing on more than 20,000,000 ha of natural grassland, enabled increase of fodder production by 17-20 million tons of f.u. and 1.7 - 2.0 million tons of digestible protein.

Fertilizing of meadows and pastures is the most effective way to increase yield, productivity and longevity, number of cuts per season and fodder quality. Efficiency of systems of mineral fertilisation depends on geographical position, floristic composition, ways of use, natural rock bed, soil and availability of mineral elements in soil. The key criteria in fertilisation systems are ecological and economical factors. The main limiting factors to fertilisation are production of ecologically safe fodder and avoidance of environmental pollution. Fertilizer application is forbidden in water protection zones. Doses of nitrogen fertilizers are limited to prevent nitrate accumulation (N-NO₃) more than 46 mg in 1 kg of pasture grass of natural moisture. Permissible dose of potash fertilizer on pasture should not increase potash concentration in fodder by more than 3 percent of dry matter.

In the north of the forest zone on grass and grass-mixed herbs grassland the ecologically safe norm is 30 - 45 kg/ha of nitrogen per grazing cycle, up to 60 kg/ha for cutting, and a total 90 kg per season. In central regions of forest and forest-steppe zones ecologically safe norm should not exceed 45-60 kg/ha per grazing cycle and 90 kg/ha for cutting, total 180 - 240 kg/ha at normal moisture. Cost of nitrogen fertilization in this fodder is 15-20 f.u. per 1 kg in European part and 13 - 15 f.u. in Asian part of the country. Main elements of the fertilizing system of grass-legumes pastures and meadows are liming of too acid soils and application of phosphorus and potash fertilizers. Increase per 1 kg of these fertilizer mixture is 8 - 15 f. u. and more. Nitrogen fertilizer application (50-90 kg/ha) in limans of semi-desert zone increases hay cut from 0,8 - 1 to 3 -4 t/ha per cut per year.

Fertilizing is one of the most efficient methods of superficial improvement of natural grassland in most mountain regions. The top priority objects for fertilization are adequate moisture on low- and middle-mountain fodder land with little weed, covered by meadow and meadow-steppe vegetation, on gentle (up to 10 degrees) slopes. Fertilizer efficiency on steep slopes is less than on gentle ones due to shallow humus horizon and less humidity. Yield payback on northern and western slopes is higher than on southern and eastern ones. Nitrogen and phosphatic fertilizers are the most efficient in mountains. Potash fertilizers are used in combination with phosphatic fertilizers on grasslands with a lot of legumes to support their productive longevity.

Efficiency of nitrogen and phosphatic fertilizers decreases higher in mountains with enough soil moisture due to reduction of the growing season, in regions with not inadequate soil moisture it increases up to a certain elevation (1,500 m on Caucasus) due to moisture increase and then falls due to shortening of the growth period. Organic fertilizers are widely used on mountain meadows and pastures. Sheep manure is efficiently used on seasonal pastures. Liquid manure and slurry are used near cowsheds. Fertilizer application on meadows and pastures in ecologically safe regions enable the following yields: in low mountains with enough soil moisture - 5-6, not enough soil moisture - 2.5-3: in middle mountains - 4-5 and 2-2.5 correspondingly; in high mountains - 1.5-2 t/ha DM.

Appropriate micro-fertilizers are applied to pasture and meadow soil with microelement deficiencies. Molybdenum is applied on medium- and lightly-acid soils in forest zone, it increases hay yield from natural meadows and pastures by 20 percent and more. Boron fertilizers are efficient in most regions of forest zone, especially on light soil, including mountains. Copper fertilizers are applied to grasslands on drained bogs. Soil rich with soluble nitrogen compounds need more copper than less fertile ones. Manganese fertilizers are mainly used in southern regions and on calcareous soils of forest-steppe zone.

Fertilizer application on meadows and pastures increases the energy and protein value of fodder. Grassland fertilization enables a stable 7-8 t/ha of hay in forest zone, 3-4 t/ha in forest-steppe and steppe zones, 5,000-7,000 f. u. /ha on pastures and several-time hay cutting meadows, 10,000 - 12,000 f. u./ha on irrigated pastures in southern regions of the country.

Control of weeds and poisonous plants plays an important role in fodder quality improvement, yield increase and full safe use of natural grassland. A number of measures are used in weed control, including prophylactic measures which limit unwanted vegetation expansion. They are prevention of seed-formation and weed seed drift. Weeds are cut before seed formation starts on meadows, ungrazed patches are cut, organic fertilizers which do not contain viable seeds are used. Transformation of meadows for grazing is an efficient management method. Grazing leads to reduction or disappearance of some weeds, for example, Geranium pratense, Archangelica and Libanotis. Some unwanted plants only occur in quantity on pastures: Alchemilla vulgaris, Plantago media and Ranunculus. Occasional pasture use for hay is an efficient measure of controlling such plants. Many plants are edible for some stock species, but not for another. Horses rather than cattle prefer Deschampsia, and Nardus stricta, pigs prefer Rumex alpinus, sheep and goat - most of plants from mixed forb stands. Such measures of weed combat are used on farms with many branches.

The most efficient, simple and widespread way of mechanical control is cutting weed at the sown pasture establishment with spring planting, without nurse crops. Herbicides are used less compared to 1985-90. Herbicides, insecticides and pesticides are forbidden in water protection zones. Weed elimination increase harvest of dry feed mass of natural grasslands by 15 - 30 percent.

MANAGEMENT OF GRASSLAND FOR CUTTING AND FOR GRAZING
Optimal timing of cutting annual and perennial grasses, and rational pasture use, provides 10 - 25 percent and more productivity without or with little labour input. Time of cutting during growth or in autumn are the most important factors in optimal meadow and perennial grass use.

In the forest zone natural and sown meadows of different botanical composition on most soils gives the highest yield at twice yearly cutting. Fertilizer application allows three cuttings in central and western regions of the European part, two in Siberia. The second cut is difficult on steep slopes and in gullies, especially in the southernmost parts of the zone and in the less favourable conditions of Northern and North-western Siberia. To provide timely cutting big farms plant mixtures with different maturity times which allows extending the optimal time of cutting and increases raw material quality at the first stage of harvesting. They do three cuts on meadows with domination of Medicago, Lotus corniculatus in central, western and southern regions of forest zone.

In the natural moisture conditions of forest-steppe zone natural meadows are normally cut for hay once annually and with fertilising two or three cuts for hay. They only mow once in the steppe zone as a rule. On fertile patches with favourable moisture Medicago stands or grass-legumes are cut 2-3 times in European Russia, twice in Western and Eastern Siberia. In Southern regions of European Russia Medicago is cut at least 4-5 times to produce meal. Swards with different maturity times are established to prolong optimal time of first cutting, as in the forest zone.

Significant increase of fodder production on mountain meadows and pastures can be achieved using rational, biologically and economically reasonable systems of management. Main ecological factors such as altitude, relief, soil, vegetation, remoteness of fodder land from villages and the availability of agricultural machinery influence the intensity of grassland use in mountains. The productivity of big areas of natural grassland in mountains can be increased by rational use; at present they only cut meadows for hay once, and this is the main reason for low winter fodder quality. Repeated cutting for hay for natural and sown meadows in the mountains of European Russia ensure quality and productivity increases up to 4500 - 5200 f. u./ha. Nutrient losses through erosion on mountain hay meadows is half that on grazed pastures. Replacement, alteration and use of sward from grazing to cutting on patches more liable to erosion reduces soil losses.

Seasonal vegetation development on semi-deserts and deserts makes hay meadow use difficult as grasses coarsen quickly; natural hay meadow productivity is usually low. Hay meadows are mainly in depressions, flood plains and contain mixed herbs - grass coarse-stem swards: Agropyron on limans, quickly coarsening Phragmites on very wet patches. Moreover, significant pasture areas occupied by Artemisia-ephemeron, Artemisia - fine sward - grass and Artemisia - Eurotia types of vegetation. All these fodder lands are usually mown once, after which plants do not grow because the soil is dry in the second half of summer. Harvesting is done in a short space of time - during earing and budding, because late cutting leads to protein losses, lignification and decrease of feed value. Phragmites on flood plains, along channels and temporary drains, is cut before piping, because later it is inedible.

Fine-sward grasses are cut for hay at 5 - 7 cm from ground level. Mowing Artemisia (and subshrubs generally) is not feasible because it leads to elimination of some lignified shoots and dramatic vegetation deterioration. Cutting subshrubs and short bushes for 2 - 3 years in a row kills them. Ephemeron cutting is possible only in warm springs with sufficient precipitation (normally once in 4-5 years). Ephemeron harvesting enables storage of hay for 2-3 years. Patches with enough moisture, covered with forbs or forb-grasses, are cut twice.

Mineral fertilizing with favourable humidity increases the number of cuttings. Systematic cutting before heading stops of self-seeding and sward deterioration. That is why hay rotation is practised on tall-grass, forb-grass hay meadows of limans, flood plains and depressions (on years): 1-4 - cutting at the phase of earing - budding start; 5 - rest with late grazing at the phase of seed shedding; 6-8 - cutting at normal stages (start of earing and budding); 9 - late cutting (at seed shedding) or at normal stages with overseeding in spring. Patches of well-developed sward with high feed value plants are left to shed seed. Hay from pastures is fed to cattle in the second half of summer, autumn or in winter. This prolongs the grazing period on remote pastures by up to 20 - 30 days.

Pasture use
The key principle of pasture use is balancing stock numbers and pasture capacity. Rational pasture use is based on limited herd attachment to specified pasture patches. This is very important for farms with big herds. Efficient pasture use is when dairy herd is 200 head, young stock - 400, young heifers up to 250 head. Beef herds normally do not exceed 200 cows with suckling calves, fattening cattle - 200 head, sheep herds - up to 3,000 head.

Pasture use is most efficient with a pen system with cattle corridors and pastures perimetres fenced with permanent electric fences. A movable electric fence is used for one-day grazing patches. Optimal number of grazings during the season in the northern part of the forest zone is three, in other regions - four-five as a rule. In summer when cattle graze on sown pastures with legumes or with grass treated with nitrogen, it is feasible to add carbohydrate or mineral feed additives to balance animal rations, this is specially important for cows calved in spring and in the first half of their lactation.

In the steppe zone the supply of forage is ensured by a combination of natural swards and pastures sown with perennial and annual fodders. Beef cattle graze on flat and gentle slopes. Cattle have free access to water, including movable or permanent water troughs. The cheapest watering is natural springs or accumulating ponds.

The correlation of land topography and herbage type forms the basis of a rational use of mountain natural pastures. Steep slopes are used for sheep and goats and the gentler ones for young cattle. More level lands and gentle slopes with rich vegetation are used for cows. Remote mountain lands and southern slopes with short herbage are for sheep grazing. Such pastures are of little use for fine fleeced sheep in humid regions.

There are mostly two grazing systems in mountain regions: a daily return and distant pasture one. A daily return system is used with grasslands relatively close to stock buildings; animals are put to grass in the morning and return to the farm in the evening. This system is mostly used in middle and high-mountains. The distant pasture system is usual for farms in small hill sub-mountain and low-mountainous regions and seldom used in middle mountains. In mountains cattle normally start to graze the lower belt, then on middle and upper belts, and then - again on lower one. That is why the use of mountain pastures of different belts of the same mountain system is a single whole and cattle movement from one seasonal altitude belt to another is inevitable and justified in most cases. In mountains the steepest slopes and remote pastures are used for sheep and goats, less steep - for young stock and fattening cattle, the flattest and closest pastures - for dairy cattle. Foothill dry-steppe or high-mountainous pastures are grazed once or twice during a grazing season and low-mountainous mesophyte ones are grazed 4-6 times. Grazing patches on pastures with broken relief and stony soils are marked, without fences, by natural relief elements.

With use of natural grasslands at the same seasons every year there is a decrease of pasture productivity and of herbage botanical composition. Pasture rotation together with agrotechnical practices protect herbage diversity and productivity. For this purpose a rotation of grazing periods is introduced for individual plots. For example, mesophyte grass-forbs pastures are used in the first year during tillering phase, in the second year - from the beginning of booting phase.

Semi-desert and desert zone pastures are mostly used for sheep. In the north of the zone young beef stock graze, and on better watered pastures with lush herbage beef cows. Herbivores graze in a pasture rotation system, attention is paid not only to rate of grazing, but to grazing alternating years, seasons and months. Artemisia - ephemeron pastures with ephemeron domination on plains with lack of moisture are grazed twice per season, in spring at the phases of earing, budding of heading of ephemeron, and in autumn at the phases of heading, drying or beginning of Artemisia ripening, when essential oil content dramatically decreases.

Estimation of pasture capacity and planned herd movement is done annually and in due time, using geo-botanical data from many years and a weather forecast for the current year. Grazing of all above ground fodder mass negatively influences sward productivity. For 4 -5 years of such grazing the herbage yield decreases by 20 - 40 percent on average, therefore natural pastures have a permissible coefficient of 60 - 65 percent. Some plants can be grazed only at certain time; Stipa capillata pastures are only used till heading because of sharp caryopses which injure animals. Artemisia pastures are no good for summer grazing because of bitter essential oils. Cattle do not eat Haloxylon and most Salsola in spring and summer because of their high salt content.

Fencing and pen system can increase pasture capacity by 15 - 25 percent, and increase animal weight gain. Rivers, temporary streams, lakes, ground water and precipitation are sources of water. Wells and boreholes are arranged to get ground water for cattle. Water lifting is as a rule mechanised.

Hay and haylage. Winter forage storage is very important for Russia where in most regions the pasture period is much shorter than the winter. Hay, haylage and silage are major ways of conserving fodder. Most natural grassland is mown for hay. Grass drying in the field is the most widespread technology. Improvement of storage and feed value of hay is ensured by baling. Hay with additional drying by active aeration is mainly stored for highly productive animals and young stock. Hay pick up increase and quality improvement could be done through new efficient technology of grass treatment at cutting, insuring decrease of field losses twice. The main point is in deep breakage of stem by crushing with partially splitting along fibres and their pounding. Total losses of nutrient at legume hay harvesting decreases to 12 - 15 percent. Hence the feed value of hay increases up to 0.80 - 0.83 f. u.

Haylage is becoming the prevailing technology for perennial legumes and legume-grass harvesting and ensures high protein and energy fodder.

Silage is the main succulent winter feed; its feed value proportion of total bulky fodder (without hay) in winter makes up 40 - 45 percent of cattle rations. Silage is made from wilted perennial legumes and legume-grass containing 15 - 23 percent of protein using chemical preservatives is the most efficient technology for high-protein forage at the moment. At ensilage of such mass in pits with use of 0.4 - 0.5 percent of liquid organic acids the raw protein preservation is 92-95 percent, and energy value of ready-to-eat forage is 0.96 f.u. in 1 kg of dry matter. The technology of wilted legume-grass mixture(as well as Trifolium pratense, and other legumes) ensilage with use of biological preparations based on osmo-tolerant lactic-acid bacteria has prospects. Nutrient losses at fermentation reduce to 5 - 10 percent. Preparations have high ecological purity and low cost which also is good for their efficiency.

Grass meal production is decreasing due to rising prices of fuel and energy. Introduction of new technology of grass meal preparation will lead to an increase of its production volume, its quality improvement and decrease of fuel consumption (twice, converting to protein). Its point is in plant separation for leaves and stems when cut. Leaves are used for grass flour, stems - for hay. Raw protein content in flour made from perennial legumes is 23-28 percent, raw cellulose - 12.5 - 18 percent.

Silage and haylage are mainly stored in pits. At present concrete pits, meant for storage of large amount of silage and haylage (1.2 - 1.5 thousand tons and more) are commonest. When livestock farms are divided up into smaller units the majority of large silage pits will be rebuilt or built. The main condition of high quality forage preserving in pits is thorough isolation of the grass by plastic films.

Pressed and loose hay is stored in sheds and barns. Additional hay drying by active aeration is done in barns corresponding to rational location of drying equipment and conditions of high quality fodder perseverance. Fodder production strategic priority for the near future is stable provision of full feed value protein produced domestically.

Forage seed production is an attractive and profitable business for farmers. Demand, especially for perennial grass and legume seeds is higher than supply, even the latter have increased recently, and the increased demand has to be covered by imports.

Production of new cultivars of perennial grass and other fodders is most efficient in specialized agricultural enterprises, located in agri-ecological zones corresponding to plant biological peculiarities.

Trifolium seed production is mainly in the forest-steppe and south of forest zones. Here grey forest soils and black soils prevail, vegetation period is 130 - 150 days with the sum of efficient temperatures (more than +10 C) equal to 1900-2500 C. Precipitation is low at the period of Trifolium flowering and seed ripening.

Medicago and Onobrychis seed production is most efficient in some regions of the steppe zone of European Russia, Pisum - in forest-steppe zone both in European and Asian Russia, Vicia sativa and Vicia faba - in the south of forest and north of forest-steppe zone, Lupinus angustifolia and Vicia faba - in the south of forest zone, chick-pea - in steppe zone, soya - mainly in the Far East with monsoon climate. Seed production of Kochia, Salsola, Eurotia, Camphorosma and others of different ecological and phytocenosis specialisation is feasible in arid zones of European Russia.

Institutional structure

Prof. Dr. German Blagoveschensky

Agricultural research Institute of Non-Chernozem Zone

143013, Moscow Region, Nemchinovka

tel. +7 095 591 85 92

fax +7 095 591 92 87

e-mail:

Dr. Lyudmila Shevtsova, Dr. Vladimir Romanenkov

All-Russian Institute for Fertilizers and Agricultural Soil Science named after D.Pryanishnikov

127550, Moscow, Pryanishnikova Str, 31

tel. +7 095 976 46 23

fax +7 095 976 39 39

e-mail:

Valery Popovtsev

Ministry of Agriculture

107139, Moscow, Orlikov per, 1/11

tel. +(095) 207 48 33

fax +7 095 288 95 80

E-mail:

Lev Komarov

All-Russian Research Institute for Cattle Breeding (VIJ)

142012, Moscow Region, Podolsky disrtict, p/o Dubrovitsy

tel. + (276) 51 101

51 163

[The profile was edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds in May 2002]