Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles

Serbia and Montenegro

by
Milorad Stošić

1. Introduction

Holding size, structure and equipment of farms

2. Soils and Topography

Topography

Soils

3. Climate and Agro-ecological Zones

Temperature

Precipitation

Agro-ecological zones

4. Ruminant Livestock Production Systems

Cattle

Sheep and goats

5. The Pasture Resource

Grassland types

Improvement of natural grasslands

Sown pastures

Sown forages

Seed production

Fodder conservation

6. Opportunities for Improvement of Fodder Resources

Improving animal production

Improvement forage production

7. Research and Development Organizations and Personnel

8. References

9. Contacts

The union of Serbia and Montenegro* [*As Montenegro voted for and declared its independence from Serbia in June 2006, in future a new profile will be prepared to reflect this] occupies the central part of the Balkan Peninsula between 41⁰ 50′ and 46⁰ 12′ North and 18⁰ 27′ and 23⁰ 01′ East. It borders Romania in the northeast, Bulgaria in the east, in the south Macedonia and Albania, in the southwest the Adriatic sea, in the west Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia, and finally Hungary in the north (Figure 1). The total area is 102 173 km², of which Serbia occupies 88 361 and Montenegro 13 812 km².

Figure 1. Map of Serbia and Montenegro*.
[*Status of Kosovo is undecided and in February 2005
it remains the UN Administered Province of Kosovo]

The population is 9 811 000 (without Kosovo and Metohija, where the last census could not be carried out, with probably another 2 000 000) with 9 149 000 in Serbia and 662 000 in Montenegro (According to the World Factbook the July 2005 population of Serbia and Montenegro was estimated at 10,829,175 with a growth rate of 0.03%). There are two autonomous provinces in Serbia: Vojvodina in the north and Kosovo and Metohija in the south. The main territorial and administrative units are municipalities and larger – districts. Central Serbia has 5 466 000 inhabitants, and Vojvodina 2 032 000; Serbs are 83% of the population of that territory. Other ethnic groups are Hungarians, Bosnians, Gypsies and more than twenty others. Inhabitants of Montenegro belong to Serb, Montenegran, Bosnian and Croatian nationalities.

Slavs migrated to the Balkan Peninsula in the sixth and seventh century. Tribal groups settled in the central region and engaged in mutual confrontations, however, from the ninth to twelfth century they united and created a state – Serbia, which was declared a kingdom in 1217. Serbs were mentioned for the first time as a people or nation in a written document in 822 . The first legal code was passed in the fourteenth century by Tsar Dušan, when Serbia had its largest territory. With the expansion of the Ottoman Empire to the Balkan Peninsula, confrontations and wars started again. At the battle of Kosovo Polje (1389) Serbia was defeated and in 1459 lost its independence. At the beginning of nineteenth century armed resistance was organized against the Ottomans. After the Second Uprising Serbia became a vassal, and ultimately independent at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.

Slavic tribes settling on the south coast of the Adriatic Sea and inland formed states with different names (Primorje, Duklja, Zeta) and in the fourteenth century the name Montenegro appeared; its first king was crowned in 1077. They fought against the Turks and before the end of the eighteenth century Montenegro was an autonomous vassal state; its first laws were passed (1796) and central authority established in 1831. Full independence was acknowledged in 1878 during the Congress of Berlin. Montenegro united with Serbia in 1918. Christianity spread in both territories and in the thirteenth century the orthodox orientation prevailed. After the First World War they were united with other South Slavic peoples in the Kingdom of Serbians, Croatians and Slovenians which, in 1926, changed its name to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After the Second World War Yugoslavia became a communist country of six republics, until 1990 when the republics became independent states, with the exception of Serbia and Montenegro which are still united.

The largest rivers in Serbia are the Danube (588 km), Sava, Tisa, Great Morava, West Morava, South Morava, Ibar and Drina on the border with Bosnia and Herzegovina; in Montenegro the Moraca, Zeta, Lim, Piva and Tara. Of the total area of Serbia and Montenegro, 6 191 000 ha of agricultural land covers approximately 60%, and 2 944 000 ha of forests about 29%. Agricultural land use is shown in Table 1.

Meadows and pastures occupy 34.5% of the agricultural land, and arable forages 43.1%. There are considerable regional variations. Grasslands in Central Serbia occupy 38%, in Vojvodina 8%, in Kosovo 46% and in Montenegro 88%. If arable forage is added to these figures, in Central Serbia and Kosovo almost half of agricultural land is used for growing fodder. Vojvodina has only 13%, but in Montenegro 89.5% of agricultural land is thus used. This also indicates the distribution and structure of livestock, which will be presented in more detail later.

Arable land. Arable land in Serbia and Montenegro is 3 700 000 ha; cereals are grown on 65%, industrial crops on 9% and forage on 15%, as shown in Table 2. Agricultural land as a percentage of all land in Serbia is shown in Figure 2, while arable land as a percentage of agricultural land in Serbia is given in Figure 3.

Low yields of all crops, in spite of good soils and highly productive cultivars and hybrids are a consequence of insufficient fertilizer as well as poor control of weeds, diseases and pests. During the sanctions, introduced by the international community, use of mineral fertilizers decreased drastically from 99 kg/ha NPK fertilizer in 1986 to only 15 kg/ha of NPK fertilizer in 1996. After the sanctions were lifted, the use of mineral fertilizers and other agrochemicals increased as did crop yields.

Figure 2. Agricultural land as percentage of all land in Serbia (after Markovic, 1993)	Figure 3. Arable land as percentage of agricultural land in Serbia(after Markovic, 1993)

Holding size, structure and equipment of farms

In general, the natural conditions in Serbia favour agriculture. On two thirds of the agricultural land the growing period lasts over 200 days; soils, although acid, are not a limiting factor nor is precipitation. The main limiting factor is the low level of technology, inadequate equipment, small farm size and poor communications.

Introduction of the communist system in 1943 led to the taking away of land from workers-farmers. Most land was appropriated under the Law on nationalisation and confiscation and the legislation from 1953 under which arable land over ten hectares was confiscated and used to form state farms, which later became agro-industrial complexes in which, with 2 000 to 40 000 hectares, modern, productive and high quality production was organized as in developed European countries. The public sector used 20 - 25% of agricultural land, that is 15 - 20% of cultivable land. However, most agricultural land was still in private ownership. Production levels on most farms was, and still is, very low.

The proportion of the population engaged in agriculture is decreasing but is still considerable. In 1971 it was 44%, in 1981 24% and in 1991 17%. Sixty percent of the agricultural population is active; the number of farm households and holdings is high and paradoxically their number is not decreasing. The law of inheritance which allows all descendants to inherit the farm estate, regardless of where they live, is certainly a contributing factor. Today in Serbia and Montenegro there are over 1 100 000 agricultural holdings. These are very small, over 60% have less than three hectares, and 80% less than five hectares (after Stosic et al 1999). This situation is even worse because plots average 0.27 hectares. The state of local roads and plots often being some kilometres from homesteads make conditions even worse. Only in western Serbia and northern Montenegro are farms better situated and buildings within the holding.

Migration over the last 50 years has been from extensive systems and mountains towards lowlands and cities. Depopulation of these areas has caused a reduction of livestock numbers. The end of the twentieth and beginning of the twenty-first century have been characterized by a dramatic decrease in cattle and sheep numbers, especially in zones where grasslands are dominant. Today there are vast areas without people or livestock, and grasslands which are now completely neglected. The trend of rural depopulation is followed by the paradox that number of owners of agricultural land is increasing because of the Law on inheritance. The situation regarding equipment on agricultural holdings is very unfavourable (Table 3).

Many tractors (approximately nine hectares are cultivated by a tractor) have no implements. Most are low powered, 40% up to 26 kW, and 38% 27 - 37 kW. Only large operations have more powerful tractors. Ploughs and disc harrows are distributed unequally so soil preparation is inadequate. For planting and sowing domestic machines are used, and beside combines made in Serbia many second-hand ones are imported.

Another negative factor is unstable and unorganised agricultural marketing. Much produce, especially vegetables, is sold on green markets in small quantities, and livestock individually. Positive recent changes are reflected by an increase in the number of cows per farm; the average was 1 – 3; on new farms the number of dairy cows is now 10 – 50 but the number of such farms is low. Holding size is not increasing, but producers with better equipment are renting uncultivated land. In Vojvodina where land is cheap compared to Central Serbia and Kosovo, farms are considerably larger - several hundred hectares and more.

2. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

Topography

The terrain of Serbia and Montenegro has two distinct regions. These are:

- the Pannonian with a Peripannonian region and the Mountain-Valley region. Both are about same size (43 705 km² and 44 656 km² ). The Pannonian part consists of all Vojvodina and regions south of the rivers Sava and Danube, regions Mačva, Pomoravlje and Podunavlje - around the Morava and Danube rivers. Peripannonian Serbia includes the southern rim of the Pannonian basin, in other words, the regions of Posavina and Pocerina around the town of Šabac, Serbian Podrinje (around the river Drina), the region of Podgorina around the town of Valjevo, Kolubara, Šumadija, western Pomoravlje (around the river West Morava), Veliko Pomoravlje, Stig and Braničevo.

- The Mountain-valley region consists of the rest of the Republic: south Pomoravlje, Carpathian Serbia, Balkan Serbia, Vlasina and Krajište, Toplica and Jablanica, as well as the region of mountain Kopaonik and river Ibar, Kosovo and Metohija and Stari Vlah with the region of Raška.

The Pannonian part is a lowland basin, which was covered during the Miocene, and Pleiocene, first by the sea and then by a lake. After the withdrawal of the waters extremely fertile alluvial deposits remained. The entire area is intersected by rivers and river valleys creating conditions for accumulation of moisture in the soil and palliating the negative effect of dry periods in summer which are typical of this region. The Peripannonian part is predominantly hilly.

The Mountain-valley part has more varied relief with high mountains surrounded by hilly terrain and slopes with peaks above 2 000 metres, and lowland (for instance Kosovo and Metohija). The vegetation is also found in the Pannonian and Peripannonian regions, as well as Alpine - Nordic vegetation. Montenegro is mountainous, except around Podgorica city, Skadarsko lake and the southern Adriatic coast.

Soils

The relief of Serbia and Montenegro is reflected in its pedological cover, so three distinct soil zones can be distinguished:

1.Pannonian lowland zone

2.Pannonian rim zone

3.Zone of soil existing in hilly-mountain-valley region.

The dominant soil type (see Figure 4) of the Pannonian lowland is chernozem with five subtypes: carbonate chernozem on forest plateaux, carbonate chernozem on forest terraces, on sandy forest terrain, on sandy soil and alluvial deposits (after Atanackovic, 1982). The most distinct chernozem is on forest plateaux and terraces. A characteristic of all these soil types is the presence of a humus accumulative and transitional horizon, over the main source substrate which can be different. Chernozem in Pannonian lowland covers about 1 000 000 ha.

Due to favourable mechanical composition and structure, the presence of CaCO₃ and richness in high quality calcium mull humus, chernozems have also favourable physico-mechanical properties. They are humic (3-7%), friable soils, neutral to weakly alkaline, except for a saline sub-type which is more alkaline (pH up to 9). Chernozems are the most productive soils in Serbia where crop production is concentrated.

Figure 4. Soil types of Serbia and Montenegro
1. Chernozem
2. Halomorphic soils
3. Eutric cambisols
4. Terra rossa
5. Pseudogley
8. Undeveloped soils
9. Vertisol
10. Humogley
11. Humofluvisols and gleys
12. Recent fluvisols
13. Rendzina, terra rossa and calcocambisols
14. Lithosols with terra rossa and rendzina
15. Ranker
16. Ranker, distric cambisol and pseudogley
17. Podsol and luvisol

The subdominant soil type of the Pannonian lowlands is humofluvisol created through constant wetting by underground water causing the formation of a clay layer. This type is more frequent on forest terraces and less often on forest plateaux. Under the influence of subsoil and surface waters, dark, fertile marsh hydromorphic soil was created which used to be covered with hydrophilic vegetation, but with lowering of the level of ground waters and draining of surface waters it became mesophyte in character. Another hydromorphic soil of Pannonian Serbia is eugley which was also created through over-wetting the soil by ground and surface waters. This soil type has the highest percentage of clay.

A pedological characteristic of the Pannonian region is that of two types of soil habitat: solonchak and solonetz. Solonchak type of marshy terrain is easily seen during the summer because of the distinct white surface because of the evaporation of rising salt solutions causing the accumulation of salts at the surface. In high wetter conditions, when water is mainly moving downwards in the soil profile, salts leach to deeper layers. Solonetz is the second most widespread soil type in Vojvodina, especially in parts intensively flooded by waters of the Carpathian river basin. Compared to solonchak where a B horizon can be differentiated only in profiles where illuviation of clay and alkalisation occur, in solonetz a B horizon always present. Salt layers are leached from the upper layers and accumulate in the B horizon.

Along the rim of the Pannonian basin, high quality soils slowly change to less productive ones, among which eutric cambisol and smonitza occupy the greatest area. On smaller areas in the region of Šumadija, western Srem, Podrinje and East Serbia there are various types of illimerized soils, and alluvial soils near rivers. These differ in characteristics and traits depending on zone. These soils, with different varieties, continue towards lower hilly-mountainous regions.

Eutric soil is present on dry land of the Pannonian lowland rim, which drains easily, as an extension of the chernozem and according to many researchers, it is of secondary origin; however, not in wide areas like chernozem, but on smaller areas depending on local conditions. This soil type is present on uneven terrain up to 500 metres, mainly on basic or carbonate sediments. A cross section of the profile of the eutric cambisol, shows under the A horizon of light brown colour, there is a B horizon slightly more compacted which gradually merges into the main substrate. Ground water is very deep and has no effect on traits of this soil type.

Vertisols are found at the edges of ravines (Čačansko–Kraljevačka, Toplica, Kosovo, Metohia), and on level terrain (river basin of Velika Morava and Timok rivers), gentle slopes, and rarely above 450 metres. They are primarily on tertiary lacustrine carbonate (marly) clays rich in montmorillonite and soil-alkaline bases, in climates with distinct wet and dry seasons. In the dry period the substrate with montmorillonite clay shrinks causing cracks through which water enters during wet periods creating anaerobic conditions at depth. Swelling of clay in the lower layers creates an impenetrable layer so that very often there is waterlogging. Vertisols are neutral (pH 6.5 - 8) with a humus content of 3-5%. The dominant type is a typical (non carbonate) vertisol. Great areas of vertisol are cultivated in Serbia (about 100 000 ha), or form pseudogley (tens of thousands of hectares) and are afforested.

The mountainous region of Serbia is exposed to influences of altitude, geological base, slope, exposure, vegetation, etc., so different soil types and subtypes were formed. Two main groups can be distinguished: soils on limestone and soils on silicate.

Soils on limestone are present in western Serbia, from where they spread discontinuously towards Metohija and Kosovo in the south and the hilly-mountainous region of East Serbia.

In some parts of West and Central Serbia, Metohija and East Serbia, the rim of the Pannonian lowland, epigley soils, and predominantly pseudogley soils are present on vast areas. Their main characteristic is the presence of impermeable layers which, on flat terrain, cause accumulation of water on the surface during precipitation. In summer, due to the prevention of moisture rising from ground water, these soils dry out easily, in other words, they have distinct wet and dry stages during the year.

Soils on limestone are created in a long process from undissolved limestone remains. They are susceptible to erosion, so in many regions skeletal soils, so called calcareous sirosems, are present, as remains of former developed soils.

Rendzinas are shallow soils on limestone, on slopes and steep land; depending on the level of development, we can distinguish organogenic and organo-mineral rendzinas. Organogenic rendzinas represent the younger stage with a horizon rich in humus, depth is not over 10 - 15 cm, and they are dry and mostly covered with grass associations. Accumulation of clay and organo-mineral complexes induce organo-mineral rendzinas with a profile depth up to 35 cm. Presence of clay allows the soil to retain moisture and encourages microbiological activity, so the humus content is lower. Further evolution of rendzinas leads towards forming brown soils, which are present beneath the accumulative-humus compressed B horizon, resting on the base. Average soil depth is 30-50 cm.

On flat land, where the soil is deeper, there are luvisols on limestone. On limestone in Southeast Serbia, Metohija and the central part of Šumadija, on dry, southern exposures, there is terra rossa. In Southeast Serbia, this soil is covered with forest or modest pastures. In Metohija, it is formed on lake sediments without limestone. Depth is approximately 30 cm with distinct evolution towards illimerized terra rossa.

On silicate bases, predominantly mica schists, phillites, acid eruptive rocks and red sandstone in East Serbia, different types of soil formed. On loose products of rock decomposition sirosem formed with an undeveloped profile. Somewhat deeper soils on silicate substrates, with a humus horizon, are rankers corresponding to rendzina on limestone.

Eutric cambisols predominate on silicate massifs. Compared to brown forest soil, these are acid and moderately saturated with bases. Beneath a dark grey or brown surface horizon there is a deeper, yellow and brown to red, B horizon. These soils are mainly sandy or clayey.

Soils in mountainous regions on serpentine differ from soils on silicates, as serpentine differs in its traits from other silicate rocks. Peridotic rocks on the surface are easily broken and whole slopes are covered with mechanically shattered detritus. Ranker is formed on serpentines in such areas which are mainly covered with forest of Pinetum nigrae or Chrysopogonetum grilli meadow. The greatest area is covered with ranker on serpentines. There is a dark horizon in the profile and beneath the top horizon there is another predominantly brown one lying on the geological base.

In Montenegro limestone-dolomite black soil on hard limestone is the main type. Productive value depends on depth. Rendzina is similar to limestone-dolomite dark fertile soil. Distric brown soil (distric cambisol) is mainly found in northern regions, with profile depth of 50-70 cm. Brown eutric soil (eutric cambisol) is formed on carbonate base layers of river valleys, terraces and fields. Terra rossa is formed below 500 metres altitude on limestone. Alluvial soils are the most suitable for agriculture in Montenegro.

3. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Climate

The main climatic characteristics are determined by Serbia’s geographical position, distance from the Adriatic and Mediterranean Sea as well as the Atlantic Ocean, relief and general atmospheric circulation. Since Serbia is in the centre of the northern temperate zone, it should have a typical temperate-continental climate (after Rakicevic 1982). However, since climate depends not only on geographical position, but also on other factors, there are considerable climatic differences among Serbian regions. Vojvodina and East Serbia (so called Timočka krajina) are exposed to influences of North and East Europe. Pomoravlje, due to a northern exposure, is under the influence of continental air masses from Central Europe, and regions of West and Southwest Serbia, because of mountainous relief, under the influence of very specific climatic conditions.

Vertical differences in Serbia, as well as horizontal differences, have a significant influence on climatic conditions; it varies from 30 metres (bottom of the Danube valley near Prahovo) to 2 656 metres (Ćeravica peak on Prokletije mountain). In this range of over 2 600 metres there are high, medium and low mountains, hills, vast valleys and highlands, deep and wide valleys of the Danube, Sava, Tisa, Morava, as well as numerous man-made lakes (Đerdap lake, Bajina Bašta, Zlatar lake, Ćelije, etc.).

Temperature

Oscillations of temperature are not very distinct in the case of horizontal cross section, but variations depending on altitude are present. Average annual temperature varies from 12.0 ^oC to 3.7 ^oC (see Table 4) on Kopaonik mountain (1 710 metres). Beside the valley of Prizren with distinct Mediterranean influences, the warmest part of Serbia is along the valleys of the rivers South and Great Morava and continuing along the east part of Banat. Serbia is open to the influences from North, Central and East Europe, Vojvodina, Timočka krajina and the river valley of Great Morava, with typical continental climate with high annual average and absolute ranges, warm summers and relatively cold winters. In most of Central Serbia and Kosovo, summers are temperate, in other words a temperate continental climate. Transition from summer to winter and vice versa is gradual, so the four seasons are distinct, but autumn is slightly warmer than spring. In some valleys (Valjevo, Kragujevac, Kraljevo, Toplice, etc.) protected from cold northern winds by mountains the climate is even more temperate. Above 1 200 metres the climate is alpine, characterized by long, cold winters with a great deal of snow and short cool summers. Between 600 –1 200 metres a so called sub-alpine climate is found, characterized by not so long, or severe winters and warm summers. Values of the thermal gradient vary depending on the region: 0.44 - 0.68 ^oC (average 0.56 ^oC) for each 100 metres of altitude.

Table 4. Average (30 years) monthly and annual temperatures and sum of precipitation on the territory of Serbia and Montenegro
[Click to view table]

Distribution of precipitation throughout the year is between the continental and Mediterranean type, closer to the continental, with the main maximum in May and June and secondary in October. In July and August, the hottest months, precipitation is very low with a distinct dry period.

There are no significant climatic differences on the territory of Vojvodina but certain specific areas can be pointed out:

- North Banat and southeast part of Bačka – the widest annual range (over 23 ^oC) and the lowest average of precipitation (bellow 600 mm).

- South and southeast region of Banat – precipitation over 600 mm, narrower range, strong south-southeast wind - Košava.

-Bačka – the highest precipitation (600-700 mm), the greatest number of days with precipitation and fog.

- Srem with Fruška Gora Mountain – less cloudy, temperatures and precipitation similar to those in Bačka.

In Central Serbia, due to more varied relief, there are several distinct climatic zones:

- Krajina – includes Timok basin and Negotin Krajina/region. Distinct continental climate, average annual (25 ^oC) and absolute range (68.1 ^oC), the most frequent presence of anticyclonic weather conditions (especially in winter).

- Đerdap zone – a strip along the Danube in Đerdap gorge. In relation to areas to its east and west, Đerdap gorge is characterized by: high humidity, relatively low summer and high winter temperatures and higher annual precipitation.

- Carpathian-Balkan climatic zone – area between Đerdap and Stara Planina Mountain on Bulgarian border. More precipitation (800-1000 mm), thicker and long-lasting snow cover compared to regions to its east and west.

- Vlasina climatic zone – includes Rodhopi mountain massif between the valley of river Nišava in the north, river South Morava in the west, Bulgarian border in the east and Macedonian in the south. Compared to Carpathian-Balkan zone there is somewhat less precipitation, winters are more severe and last longer and summers are cooler.

- Climatic zone of Great Morava River – area along the course of river Great Morava. This is less continental than Krajina, winters and summers are milder, growing season longer, more precipitation and shorter snow cover.

- Climatic zone of South Morava River – along the course of river South Morava, including the valley of Toplica, Dobrička valley and Bela Palanka valley. The lowest precipitation in Serbia, mild winters, shorter snow cover and very hot summers.

- Šumadija zone – between the valley of river Great Morava in the east, river West Morava in the south and Kolubara in the west. Typical example of moderate-continental climate with four distinct seasons.

- Climatic zone of West Morava River – valley of the river West Morava with ravines, starting with Užice valley in the west to Kruševac ravine in the east. Somewhat higher precipitation with more even distribution compared to Šumadija.

- Kopaonik climatic zone – between the valley of river West Morava in the north, river South Morava in the east and river Ibar in the west. Subalpine climate (Goč, Željin) gradually turns into alpine (Kopaonik) with the coldest and longest winters (sub-zero monthly temperatures from December to April), with the lowest annual temperature (3.7 ^oC) and range (18.0 ^oC).

- Kolubara-Mačva zone – river basin of Kolubara, Mačva region and the furthest downstream part of Drina River. Average annual temperatures are between 10 and 11 ^oC, and precipitation 600-800 mm, less cloud and somewhat higher relative air humidity compared to Šumadija and Pomoravlje.

- Valjevo-Podrinje zone – the greatest part of West Serbia south of Kolubara-Mačva. Typical climate of low and medium altitudes with temperatures from 7-10 ^oC and precipitation 800-1 000 mm.

- Southwest mountain climatic zone – between the river Ibar in the east and rivers West Morava and Ćetinja in the north and the border of Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina in the south and west. The highest precipitation, cloudiness, the longest snow cover and shortest growing season are traits of this climatic zone. There are vast highlands – Pešter has a specific climate; cold and long winters, frequent temperature inversions, low precipitation.

In the territory of Kosovo there are six climatic zones:

- Kosovo climatic zone – plateau of Kosovo – area around the cities of Priština, Uroševac and Podujevo. Characteristics of this zone are low precipitation and continental rainfall regime. Winters are cold and duration of sunlight is the longest.

- Metohija climatic zone – plateau of Metohija, area around the cities of Peć, Đakovica and Prizren. The greatest influence of Mediterranean climate in Serbia, with mild wet winters and sunny and warm summers.

- Drenica-Mitrovica climatic zone – Drenica with northern part of Kosovo (Kosovska Mitrovica). Transition between Kosovo climatic zone and Metohija climatic zone.

- Gnjilane climatic zone – Gnjilane valley with the rim. Low precipitation, Mediterranean rainfall regime and shortest duration of snow cover.

- Prokletije climatic zone – mountain range of Prokletije, Žljeb and Mokra Gora. Typical high-mountain (alpine) climate with the highest precipitation in Serbia (1 338 mm), the longest duration and thickest snow.

- Šarplanina mountain zone – mountain range of Šarplanina Mountain and neighbouring areas: Dragaš, Sredska and Sirinić. High precipitation quantity (less than Prokletije zone) with somewhat shorter duration of less deep snow (after Rakicevic 1982).

The agro-ecological zones of Montenegro are: coastal zone, karst – rocky terrain, flat – lowland, valley and mountain zones.

Cattle

Cattle raising is of great importance for the development of agriculture. Prior to the introduction of sanctions in 1992 Serbia was a traditional exporter of fat cattle and beef meat to many countries, especially Germany, Italy and Greece. Cattle numbers in Serbia are decreasing, as in most of countries, but with increasing productivity per head. In 1990 there were 2 168 000 head, 1 275 000 cows and pregnant heifers; in 2001 there were 1 341 000 cattle with 923 000 cows and pregnant heifers (after Lazarevic R. 2003). Such a drastic decrease of numbers is the result of ten-year sanctions, as well as the transition and economical collapse of public farms; at the same time numbers in private ownership also decreased, as a result of rural depopulation, only older people remained in villages of these regions so cattle breeding ceased completely. In breed structure, Domestic Spotted cattle of the Simmental type are dominant; in Vojvodina and around large cities and on public farms Holstein-Friesian cattle are present, although there are many crossbreds between Domestic Spotted and Busha, Domestic Spotted and Holstein Friesian, Domestic Spotted and Montbeliard breeds, as well as other crosses.

Dairying. Production of milk per cow is approx 2 000 kg (after Plavsic et al.2004). From 1990 to 2001 milk production per cow increased by 587 kg or by 53.3 kg. annually. Only one quarter of all milk is purchased from producers, which is approx. 600 kg per cow - the lowest milk yield of European producers. A high price (€0.27 per litre) contributes significantly to increased production, causing an increase in the number of small dairies, which together with existing dairies increase the competition in buying raw milk.

Beef production. Production of beef and veal in Serbia fell from 230,852 tons in 1993 to 194 200 tons in 2000 and 175,000 in 2005, and meat per cow decreased from 129.4 kg in 1990 to 101.8 kg in 2000. This indicates that production of meat per head is low for several reasons. Young cattle below 500 kilos are being slaughtered, even calves of 100-200 kg. Beef per unit of cultivable land is also decreasing; in 1990 it was 33.93 kg (off 4.863 mill. ha), and in 2000 it was 21.00 kg (4.724 mill. ha). Statistical data only shows part of the production - only beef, without other meat or production types. Consumption of beef in Serbia in the last decade decreased slightly from 14 - 15 kg in 1990 to approx. 11 kg per capita in 2000; total meat consumption is 40 kg per capita per year.

Cattle raising
Cattle raising demands constant human presence although most tasks are mechanised, since cattle production lasts 365 days in a year. In Serbia today housed and barn-grazing (combined) systems are present. Housed cattle predominate, with all categories of cattle housed, completely covered and enclosed. Research on buildings to provide the most favourable conditions for high production has been undertaken; housed cattle were tied, free or a combination of both. Today, all these systems are used, but tying is commonest because the number of cows per farm is small (1 to 3). Although this system has some advantages (individual control of feeding, insemination and medical treatment), there are also disadvantages (inability to move), which reflect on hardiness, fertility, longevity, economic efficiency, etc. of animals.

A yard system for fattening cattle has been used for the last 30 years, and for the last 15 years stalls are built for free system dairy cows. This system is used on some large private (over 10 dairy cows) and public farms. Today, new farms are designed mainly for this system, where cattle are free to move between feeders and resting space, and are free to feed and drink ad libitum and to rest. The combined system is most complicated in practice. Cattle raising on pasture, characteristic of certain regions, is seasonal, lasting for three to six months.

Sheep and goats

Although sheep numbers are falling, the number of lambs slaughtered is the same or even rising. In 2001 some 1 425 000 lambs were slaughtered, and in 2003 some 1 490 000. In the past two years production of lamb and mutton has not fallen, especially considering that there are no data on lambs and sheep slaughtered on-farm. Sheep milk’s composition (protein and fat content) is better than cow milk and more suitable for processing; sheep dairy products are more sought on the market and command high prices. There is a problem of low milk yield since there are no breeds selected for high milk production. Wool cannot be sold by the producers due to the low price of high quality wool from New Zealand and Australia.

The primitive Pramenka breed predominates. In some regions, like Sjenica, it has been improved by crossing with Württemberg, or, as the second most important strain, Pramenka crossed with Bardocca, with somewhat higher milk yield. The second most important breed is transitional – Tsigai sheep, mainly bred in Vojvodina, and the third with the least population Pirot improved sheep.

Goats. Goat keeping has no great economical importance because of the small number; there are no reliable data on goat numbers. It was estimated in 2000 at about 241 000 head with numbers lower from 2000 to present than in the 1990s. The main products are milk and dairy products, which are in high demand on the market. Meat, especially kid, is also in high demand. The current situation in goat raising is also unsatisfactory. The Balkan goat is predominant, and it is kept from low to high altitudes, also Domestic Saanen goat of low milking capacity (150 - 500 litres per goat annually). There are smaller populations of Alpine and Saanen with average milk production of 800 – 1 000 kg. Goat numbers are decreasing on public farms and increasing on private farms which usually keep 5 to 10 goats, but a few farms have between 50 and 200. Livestock numbers in Serbia and Montenegro as recorded in FAOSTAT are shown in Table 5. Other major sources of meat in 2005 were pigs-560,000 mt and chicken meat-67,000 mt. As well as considerable pork and chicken meat imports, some 68,277 mt of dairy products (milk equivalent) were imported in 2004.

Serbia is at the junction of three vegetation provinces (eastern – cold and dry, western – warmer and more humid, Mediterranean – warm and dry) so the plant world is characterized by great diversity, complexity and riches of vegetation forms and plant species. Forests and grassland cover 4 080 000 ha or 46.2% of Serbia.

Grassland types

Investigations of the floristic composition of grasslands show that over 200 different plant species can be found on a very small area. Floristic research in Serbia is based on the Swiss - French school of Braun-Blanquet. Numerous researchers have registered over 273 grassland associations in this area in the second half of the twentieth century, and a revision categorizes grassland vegetation in seven classes, 15 orders, 23 alliances and 48 associations with 106 sub associations (after Kojic et al. 2004).

To view their sintaxonomic position please click here.

Regardless of the great number of associations only ten are of higher economical importance. Molinietum coeruleae, Alopecuretum pratensis, Cynosuretum cristati, Agrostietum vulgaris, Danthonietum calycinae, Chrysopogonetum grylli sirbicum, Chrysopogonetum grylli pannonicum, Festucetum vaginatae, Poetum violeceae and Nardetum strictae.

Grassland areas and distribution
Grasslands in Serbia are divided into primary and secondary according to their formation. Primary grasslands are on low land (on marshy terrain and in steppe regions of Vojvodina, mainly on marshy soils) and in mountainous regions, above the forest line. Secondary grasslands occupy the largest areas and were created through clearing of forest. These grasslands are very important for livestock production because beside their large area, they are more productive and of better quality than primary grasslands.

Distribution of grassland zones is related to orography and is not precise, but represents conditions of the habitat and production potential of the grassland. In the classification in the table below (Table 6), valley regions (lowlands) are up to 300 metres, the hilly region is from 300 – 1 000 metres and the mountain region is over 1 000 metres).

Floristic composition of grasslands is conditioned by habitat. Since grasslands occur on the lowest land (below 100 metres) and on the highest mountain tops (above 2 500 metres) their floristic composition is different (see Table 7).

Grasslands on lowland, marshy terrain have no practical importance for livestock since they are composed of tall plants of poor quality (Phalaris arundinacea, Phragmites communis, Juncus effusus, Carex sp. etc.). Small areas of such grasslands are also found in hilly-mountainous regions on swampy land (Molinietum coeruleae, Deschampsietum caespitosae). Unlike the valley grasslands, these associations are composed of low growing plants and provide feed of better quality.

Valley grasslands are in river valleys, on gentle or slight slopes that occasionally get flooded. Soils are deep, with good structure and fertile so these are grasslands of the highest quality in Serbia. They consist of good grasses (Festuca pratensis, Arrhenatherum elatius, Cynosurus cristatus, Alopecurus pratensis, Agrostis capillaris, Agrostis alba). These grasslands are often ploughed for field crops. On marshy soils in Vojvodina the type present is Festucetum pseudoovinae. Lowland grasslands have the highest share of legumes.

From the practical aspect and according to floristic composition, grasslands in hilly and mountainous regions are similar and therefore given in the text as a single group: grasslands of hilly-mountainous region. They are the richest from the floristic point of view, especially those in the forest zone. They are also of the greatest significance for livestock production since in this region they represent the main or sole source of feed.

The basic characteristic of the botanical composition of natural grasslands is scarcity of legumes and quality grasses, and frequency of weeds. The commonest legumes are : Trifolium repens, Trifolium montanum, Trifolium alpestre; and not so frequent Trifolium pratense and Lotus corniculatus. The most significant grasses are Agrostis capillaris, Agrostis Alba, Festuca rubra and Chrysopogon gryllus. Plants belonging to other families, colloquially called weeds in Serbia, are numerous; a few are of high quality, but many are poor to worthless, or harmful and poisonous.

According to their mode of use grasslands are divided into meadows and pastures. Meadows are mown (first cut) and grazed (early spring before growth begins and after mowing until the end of the growing season). Pastures are on shallow or steep land, often with many embedded or loose stones on the surface and are only used for grazing. The bureau of statistics of Serbia registered an average yield from meadows of 1.8 and pastures 0.5 tons/ha of dry matter.

Improvement of natural grasslands

The low productivity of natural grasslands is due to insufficient inputs, especially low fertilizer use. From the mid nineteen-sixties to mid nineteen-eighties, grasslands were fertilized and exploited to the full, livestock resources were greater, and population migration not so serious. Later, economical sanctions led Serbia to total isolation. Export of agricultural products was interrupted and the domestic market was very weak.

Research and its application in the field have shown that the production potential of natural grasslands is very high: in low lands over 10, in hilly region 6 - 8 and mountain region 3 - 5 tons/ha of dry matter. The decisive measure for yield increase is application of mineral fertilizers. Planning of the quantities and type of fertilizer depends on the nutrient status of the soil and production potential of the vegetation. Serbian soils, especially those under grasslands, have low mineral nitrogen and total and available phosphorus, and medium or high available potassium. Humification and mineralisation of nitrogen is low and slow because of low microbiological activity or acidity which is characteristic of soils under grassland, or because of summer drought and winter cold.

When fertilising natural grasslands all three macro nutrients: N, P and K must be used. Research over several years showed the application of only one or two-nutrient combinations (NP, NK, PK) to be unsatisfactory and yield change was slight. Combination of PK will only increase the share of legumes when these are already present in the grassland at over 5 - 10%. However, the legumes in Serbian grasslands are mostly low producing  (Trifolium alpestre, Trifolium montanum, Trifolium repens) with small leaves and not resistant to treading). If fertilization increases the share of legumes, yields are still low ( after Radojevic et al.1980). Only in very wet springs, when there is massive presence of Trifolium campestre, can PK give a considerable yield increase. NP contributes more to yield increase compared to the other two-component combinations. Since Serbian grasslands have no potential for considerable increase of legumes, N fertilizer has the decisive role, but it must be in combination with P and K (after Stosic et al., 2004).

Effect of fertilizer on botanical composition

A high presence of broad leaved plants in grasslands is caused by insufficient fertilizer or inadequate management; only when both of are combined can weeds be permanently eradicated. Why? When grassland is weedy, in the first year weed presence is relatively low, but their total weight is increased. If the pasture is mown in the first year before seed-set of early annual weeds, in the next year such weeds will not be present. Adjusted quantities of NPK contribute to the dominance of grasses which comprise 90% of the total mass (after Stosic,1974). Changes of the floristic composition of this plant association are regular: almost all associations transform into Agrostietum vulgaris, Festucetum rubrae or their transitional forms (after Stosic et al.1989). A strong tendency towards the terminal stage of Agrostietum vulgaris was observed and registered when high rates of nitrogen were used.

Effect of fertilizers on the yield

Experience with application of solid, good fermented manure is positive. Use of manure encourages the growth of legumes and high quality grasses. However the manure available in hilly-mountainous regions is primarily used on potatoes and cereals; liquid manure has not given good results. Facilities for storing manure are often inadequate so fermentation is not completed. Such liquid manure influences the growth of robust weeds, most often Rumex sp. Nowadays, the so called torenje system is part of agricultural practice, where livestock is kept on a certain area for 20 nights.

Since decisions regarding the use of mineral fertilizers are conditioned by circumstances, it is of great importance to determine the type and quantity of fertilizer as well as time and method of application. Regardless of the fact that soils have low quantities of available forms of nitrogen and phosphorus, and medium quantity of potassium, results of investigations and our experience confirm that application of all three nutrients is necessary (see Figure 5). Considering the floristic composition of grasslands (few legumes and grasses with good potential) the most important nutrient is nitrogen. To ensure that this element is used in the best possible way, it is essential to balance it with phosphorus and potassium. This ratio should be 2-3:1:1 (N: P₂O₅: K₂O =2-3:1:1,) that is (N: P: K = 4.7 - 9.2:1:1.9).

Figure 5. Influence of N and PK on the yield of a meadow at 800 metres altitude.
(after Stosic, 1974)

Depending on soil characteristics, floristic composition of the grassland and production potential, as well as precipitation, the following quantities of nutrients are recommended:

There are compound mineral fertilizers on the domestic market with an equal ratio of nutrients, so in practice the use of 150 - 330 kg/ha of such fertilizer with addition of 27% KAN (potassium ammonium nitrate) or 46% carbamide is recommended.

The timing of application is also determined by circumstances. Since grassland soils are light and on slopes, it is recommended that all fertilizer is applied at once in the spring, before the start of growth. For natural grasslands, especially at 500 metres altitude, topdressing is not recommended for two reasons: their production is concentrated in the first half of the growing period, in the first cut; after the first cut a dry period occurs and undissolved fertilizers are present in the soil for a long time. Trials with and without topdressing show that there are no yield differences, but time of first cut has a considerable effect on yield. Yields increased continuously from cutting 42 days after the start of growth until the seventy-seventh day. A somewhat higher yield in the second cut can be achieved only after the earliest possible cutting (after Stosic et al. 1996b, 1996c).

Trials with and without top-dressing show that there are no differences in yield but time of first cut has considerable effect on yield. If we compare yields when first cutting took place 42 days after the start of growth and subsequently cutting was carried out each week until the seventy-seventh day, we can conclude that yields were increasing constantly (Figure 6). Somewhat higher yield in the second cut can be achieved only at the earliest cutting possible.

Kopaonik Mt., 1 000 m a.s.l.	Kopaonik Mt., 1 600 m a.s.l.

Figure 6. Fertilizer effect ( N₁₂₀P₃₀K₆₀ –1 first , 2 second cut and Total, N₈₀₊₄₀P₃₀K₆₀-1a first, 2a second cut and Total a) and date of cutting on yield and distribution of DM of natural meadow at two altitudes (after Stosic et al. 1996b,Stosic et al.1996c)

Figure 7. Influence of quantities of applied N on the yield of different associations and sites
(after Lazarevic et al. 2003a).

There is a rule for deciding on fertilizer rates: on more productive grassland use high rates; and for less productive grasslands the aim is to improve them by first giving lighter dressings; as they change in floristic composition and improve, fertilizer rates are increased in subsequent years until the grassland reacts with increases in yield (Figures 7 and 8).

Figure 8. Response of different associations at the same site
(after Kojic et al., 1992)

 Figure 9. Typical grassland scenes in mountain regions of Serbia and Montenegro

Sown pastures

Sown pastures were introduced to farming practice in the mid nineteen-sixties after long term investigations which began at the end of the nineteen-fifties and continue today. Constant increase of the area under sown grasslands lasted almost 20 years, then stagnated and a slight decrease in area occurred because of the constant decrease of the number of livestock. Today 150 000 ha are under sown grasslands. They have a significant role in providing feed and protecting soil from erosion, especially in the hilly-mountainous region. Sown grasslands were established instead of field crops thus avoiding ploughing each year which had caused intensive erosion on slopes. From the first steps until today composition of mixtures has changed and these changes can be divided into several phases. In the first phase, mixtures had numerous species, approximately ten because of insufficient knowledge of their biology, their competitive abilities and relation with the environment (after Djordjevic et al.1968, Sostaric-Pisacic et al. 1971). During this phase fertilizer was left out or used in very small quantities. Subsequently the number of species was reduced and intensive use of fertilizer introduced. In lowlands, where mixtures were sown on arable land, in intensive production systems and near livestock farms, the number in mixtures was two or three. Today mixtures of five to seven species are used. The basic guideline is that sown pasture should be maintained for as long as possible; five to seven years or longer. Shorter-term pastures are included in lowland crop rotations.

Choice of mixtures

A key question in choosing mixtures is the correct selection of forages, especially choice of the leguminous component and its share. Most grasses have great adaptability to environmental conditions, unlike legumes. Lolium multiflorum, is very sensitive to frost and Lolium perenne is also in general very sensitive. The results of 15 years of testing showed that in similar mixtures the share of the grass Arrhenatherum elatius decreased with increasing altitude (1 100 – 1 600 and 1 800 metres), Phleum pratense increased constantly, whereas the share of Dactylis glomerata remained unchanged (Stosic et al. 1980). The most common grasses were: Dactylis glomerata, Phleum pratense, Arrhenatherum elatius, Festuca pratensis, Festuca arundinacea, Festuca rubra, Lolium perenne, Lolium multiflorum, and less commonly Bromus inermis, Agrostis vulgaris, and Poa pratensis.

Selection of the legume component, of species and their share in a mixture is a delicate task. The basic determination of the range of legumes was carried out: from lowland to 1 200 metres where soils are not very acid lucerne (Medicago sativa) is included, on dry and sandy soils of different acidity bird’s foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus). On fertile moist soils red clover (Trifolium pratense) is used, and on all soil types in mountain region white clover (Trifolium repens) is included in the mixture. These are the leading legumes but usually a second is added. White clover is the least used legume for two reasons: firstly, only white clover types with narrow leaves and sensitive to treading have been used so far and they are not very competitive; secondly, sown pastures are mainly used for mowing. Research on white clover with medium size or large size leaves is positive in regard to better and longer persistence in mixtures, but not in practice because such cultivars are hard to find on the market.

The commonest ratio of legumes: grasses is 20 to 30: 70 to 80% of covering value/grass community value that is 10-15% weight share of leguminous plants and 85-90% of grasses. Sown pastures in crop rotations in the lowlands have a higher share of legumes (40-70%) but are used for shorter periods (two - four years).

The main problem for grasslands in hilly regions (see Figure 9) is longevity of the legumes. Usually, in the first two years, the share of legumes is within the projected level; in the third year, and especially in following years, the proportion of legumes is considerably reduced. If the legumes were planned to be up to 30% of cover, empty spaces after the third year are filled by grasses. If that does not occur spaces are taken by weeds. The following mixtures, given in Tables 8a and 8b are the commonest:

* Wherever it is possible to grow lucerne it is obligatory in mixtures. If soil is acid or sandy it is recommended to grow birdsfoot trefoil instead of lucerne.

Organizing of animal feed production on sown pastures so as to provide feed when needed at different times is solved through choice of species, not cultivars. There are still no cultivars with different maturation periods in Serbia, and seed importers of pay almost no attention to this.

Mixtures for regions where most of the sown pasture is grown are shown in Table 9:

[Explanation: Quantity of seed for each species in mixtures is calculated based on its planned cover value as a percentage. However, sellers of seed are obliged to indicate on a test certificate weight share of each species expressed as a percentage].

Establishment methods
Establishing of sown pastures is mainly by ploughing, seed-bed preparation (using disc harrow or rotary hoe) and usually manual sowing. If manure is used it must be ploughed in; mineral fertilizers are applied after ploughing and before seedbed preparation. Grasslands are rarely established with reduced soil preparation; sowing of parts of already established grasslands as a method of improvement is not used in Serbia. There were some trials based on simple techniques which did not give encouraging results. Recently the FAO project GCP/FRY/001/NET funded by the Netherlands has successfully demonstrated oversowing with sod seeders (for more details see http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/publicat/field2/GCP001.htm). Sowing is mainly in spring, and is usually carried out without a nurse crop, but wheat or oats may be used. Often the seed rate of the nurse crop is too high, and it is cut rather late, often used only when mature. The standard for seed in mixtures is approximately 40 kg ha^-1. However, when sowing under a nurse crop producers use over 50 kg ha^-1 of seed.

Fertilizing sown pastures
Application of manure before establishing grasslands contributes to a higher share of legumes and their better persistence in mixtures. Manure is primarily used for production of potatoes and cereals so mineral fertilizers are mostly used on pasture. For fertilization of sown pastures with mineral fertilizers the rule is : when establishing legume mixtures, complex fertilizer is applied with an equal ratio of nutrients (most often 15:15:15) in quantities of 45 - 60 kg ha^-1 N, P₂O5 and K₂O. When the legume component disappears or falls below 5%, phosphorus and potassium are kept at the same level, and nitrogen is increased to 60 - 120 kg ha^-1(see Figure 7 for the influence of N fertilizer on yields).

How fertilization affects the botanical composition and yield of mixtures is shown in the following figures (see Figures 10 and 11):

Figure 10. Influence of levels of NPK on share of legumes in mixtures
(after Stosic 1990)

Figure 11. Influence of NPK levels on yield in first three years
(after Stosic 1990)

How legumes contribute to production is shown in Table 10.

Sown forages

Previous situation

Relief from 30 to over 2 500 metres and climatic conditions enable different forages to be grown but forages are mostly grown in the lowlands, whereas with increasing altitude sown pastures increase and together with natural grasslands dominate the mountain region. Fodder production in the lowland is based on arable crops, in hilly regions on ploughed fields and grasslands, and in the mountain region on grasslands; these are often the sole source of livestock feed. Fodder is grown in Serbia on 531 500 ha, which is 14.4% of the arable area (Table 11).

Numerous factors have influenced fodder production; a major one is the decrease of livestock production, falling livestock numbers per unit area has changed crop structure to the detriment of forages, especially leguminous forages (vetch, peas, lucerne, clover, etc.). Official statistics on land under forages shows different tendencies, beet is decreasing as the most important root as well as hybrid maize, the most important plant for silage. Moderate increases of land under lucerne, peas, vetches and red clover are recorded overall yield trends of the most important fodders in Serbia have reversed direction compared to world tendencies. Yields of lucerne, clover, beet, fodder maize, vetches and peas are constantly decreasing. Lower yields of hay are more serious for clover than lucerne, also peas than vetches, and beet than fodder maize.

A number of different plants are used for fodder production. There are 69 domestic, 148 foreign and 33 domesticated cultivars of 58 species on the list of cultivars and hybrids present in Serbia (after Djukic et al. 1996). Improvement and creation of fodder cultivars is carried out by the Institute for Field and Vegetable Crops, Department of Fodder Plants, in Novi Sad Agricultural Institute Serbia, The Centre for Forage Crops in Kruševac and The Centre for Agricultural and Technological Research in Zaječar. Fodder plants are divided according to the plant life duration and growing method into the following groups:

Annual legumes

Vetches (Vicia villosa): winter and spring vetches are important; three cultivars were bred providing good yield and high quality. Vetches are primarily fed to livestock green in early spring, rarely as hay or silage. They are sown mixed with rye, wheat, barley, oats or triticale.

Peas (Pisa sp.): Winter and spring peas, with three domestic cultivars are high yielding fodders. Also, three domestic cultivars grown for grain have high grain yield, different maturation and are tolerant of lodging. Peas for grain are grown in dry regions, since they ripen early and avoid the summer drought. Seeds contain 25-28 % of crude protein and, after grinding, can be used in concentrated mixtures for both ruminants and non-ruminants. Improvement of peas for grain should be directed to plants with shorter stems (afila type), resistance to lodging, early maturity and good grain quality with over 25% of crude protein.

Perennial legumes

Lucerne (Medicago sativa)is the most important forage in the country (see Figure 12); no other plant can provide such a quantity of forage of such high quality. However, lucerne is grown only on 5.9% of cultivated or 3.8% of agricultural land. Fifteen domestic cultivars have been bred to suit different conditions, with high yield potential (over 20 tons ha^-1 DM) and good forage quality (protein content from 18 –22.0% DM) (e.g. NS Banat ZMS II, NS Mediana ZMS V, K-22, K-23, K-28, Krajina and Zaječarka 83). The following cultivar is resistant to lodging and have outstanding quality: NS Slavija. Those with tolerance to poorer soils include K-28, Novosađanka H-11, NS Mediana ZMS V and NS Vršac ZMS IV. Almost all cultivars were bred from native populations of lucerne from the Pannonian lowland. New cultivars should be hardier and tolerant to lodging, have high leaf to stem ratio and high protein content, be tolerant to frequent mowing and be suited to intensive exploitation and irrigation. Also, they should be resistant to drought and low temperatures, diseases and pests. Lucerne cultivars resistant to low temperatures and poorer soils were bred by crossing (M.falcata x M.sativa). Breeding adapted cultivars and liming better soils in hilly regions could increase lucerne production and intensity in these regions. Livestock production in hilly regions could be provided with stable yields and quantities of good quality feed.

Red clover (Trifolium pratense), the second most important forage, is mainly grown where lucerne cannot be produced due to soil acidity. Eight domestic cultivars were bred (K-3, K-9, K-17, K-27(4n), K-32 (4n), K-38, K-39, Kolubara) characterized by high yields in the first and second production years and somewhat lower yield in the third year. Numerous native populations provide a basis for creation of new, more persistent and disease resistant cultivars. Breeding persistent cultivars suitable for use in grass-legume mixtures is the second objective of selection (after Lugic et al. 2002).

Birdsfoot Trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) is also important and widespread on acid soils, especially in mountain regions. Four domestic cultivars (K-30, K-37, Bokor, Zora) have good yields and high quality of forage.

White Clover (Trifolium repens) is not so important in Serbia compared to other perennial legumes. It is only grown in mixtures with grasses for grazing, and not much with grasses for mowing. Breeding has not been as intensive as with red clover and only one domestic cultivar was selected (K-31) as being well suited for local climatic and soil conditions. Breeders efforts are towards creation of cultivars for combined use, especially for mixtures for hilly-mountain regions.

Grasses: Dactylis glomerata (4), Arrhenatherum elatius (2), Festuca arundinacea (3), Festuca rubra (3), Lolium multiflorum (2), Phleum pratense (1).

Other fodders

Forage sorghum (Sorhum bicolor) is important as a green fodder and for ensiling. It is especially important for green cutting because it is possible to plan different harvest dates and use. It is used as a catch crop and is grown on 5 000 ha, with three cultivars each with different maturation periods.

Sudan grass (Sorghum sudanense) is not as widely grown as sorghum although it can give four cuts in a year up to 15 t ha^-1 DM. It tolerates drought. There are three domestic cultivars providing high yields and quick regeneration.

Brassica napus and Brassica oleracea: These are grown on smaller areas, often near livestock facilities and used as the earliest green feed in the spring (at the beginning of April).

Beta vulgaris: An important fodder mainly used in winter (root) or for ensiling (leaves). Five cultivars have been bred so far, from semi-sugar beets to typical fodder beets. Hybrids are being created with different ratios of leaves and root, sugar content and a more developed thick part of the root above-ground, that are suitable to be grown on smaller areas or individual holdings.

Figure 12. Central part of Serbia: Vinyards and crop fields (left), usual crop rotation: maize-lucerne (right)

Production technology

Forage yields and seed of forage plants depend on numerous climatic and edaphic factors as well as applied technology. Yield is determined by the production factor that is limiting. Forage plants are genetically predetermined for synthesis of large quantities of organic matter, especially perennial and multi-cut forages. For intensive dry matter production adequate production technology is necessary. The most frequent mistakes in production technology are choice of pre-crops, quality of cultivation especially seed-bed preparation (see Figure 13), fertilization, sowing (timing, plant density etc.), protection from pests, diseases and weeds.

Examples of forage production

Different agro-ecological conditions influence forage selection. On demonstration farms in different ecological conditions a forage programme based on needs of a single dairy cow have been designed and introduced. The aim was to base the diet on fodder (hay, silage and green feed) with the necessary concentrated feed. The calculation was based on 4 500 kg per cow per lactation.

In lowlands it is calculated that 0.45 ha is necessary for a dairy cow, or a hectare can produce10 000 kg of milk (Table 12).

Figure 13. Province Vojvodina: Preparation of soils (top left); fields under crops (top right). In the bottom photo fertilizer response is clearly seen in the early spring pasture growth (bottom left) compared with poorer non-fertilized growth (bottom right)

In hills up to 700 metres, crop choice narrows, soil fertility decreases and the growing season shortens. Experience has shown that 0.6 ha is necessary for a milch cow. In hilly zones, based on a lactation of 4 500 kg, a hectare can produce 7 500 kg of milk (Table 13).

In mountains livestock production relies completely on grasslands. Calculations and practical experience on demonstration farms have shown that one hectare provides the needs of one milch cow. In other words, a hectare of grassland can produce 4 500 kg of milk (Table 14).

Seed production

Production of field crop seeds (maize, wheat, barley, oats, sunflower, etc) is well organized, stable and satisfies domestic demand. Surplus maize and sunflower seed is exported. However, forage seed production cannot satisfy the demand, and each year seed is imported (Table 15).

The main reason for insufficient production is absence or poor linkages in the production system, processing and marketing. Recently, a decline in seed sales has been noted; the area used for seed production was reduced because of the fall in livestock numbers. The greatest oscillations in production are for lucerne and red clover. Their seed is harvested from fields sown for fodder – high population stands (distance between rows 12.5-20 cm) and usually from the second cut. When conditions are favourable, very rarely, production can satisfy domestic demand and even some may be exported. Seed of perennial grasses is always imported. Currently seed of only four grasses is produced in Serbia : Arrhenatherum elatius, Festuca arundinacea, Lolium multiflorum, Lolium perenne.

Fodder Conservation

When organizing the production of animal feed the greatest mistakes occur during conservation causing great losses and reducing considerably the nutritive value of feeds.

Haymaking

Herbage from sown forages, pastures and natural grassland, in Serbia is mainly conserved as hay (see Figure 14). Tractor driven reciprocating and rotary mowers are used. Larger holdings have mowers with conditioners to achieve faster drying. In mountain regions, on less accessible terrain small mowers are used on motorized cultivators.

Figure 14. Conservation of livestock feed: Traditional preparation of hay and haystacks (top left and right), preparation of grass silage (middle), preparation of maize silage (bottom left), the most common type of silo buildings (bottom right)

Hay from arable and grasslands is usually made by drying on the land. After cutting, and possibly crushing, the herbage is turned. This method of conservation has the greatest losses, on average 30-40% of dry matter is lost during the process and 60% of carotene. These losses occur even with modern machinery. Recently, for collection only balers were used. Small balers which make bales of 15 to 20 kg are usual in the lowlands, and are slowly spreading also in the highlands. On public farms, especially in Vojvodina, larger balers are used that make bales of 300 - 400 kg.

In some regions, especially in western Serbia, wooden devices are still used in haymaking so loss of nutritive matter is reduced. Hay is stored in mountain regions usually in stacks in the open. In hilly and especially in lowland regions hay is stacked in covered areas/stores, or above stables. Bales are stacked, protected with plastic film.

Silage making

Silage has been made in Serbia since the beginning of the nineteen-eighties; maize is the commonest silage crop (see Figure 14), in both lowland and highlands; it has a high soluble carbohydrate content. Single-row whole-crop harvesters are used. The area ensiled is estimated at 5% of all maize. Cobs and grain are only ensiled where pig production is developed. Silage from other crops is prepared sporadically and in insignificant quantities (after Dinic et al.1998).

Ensiling facilities Different silos are used, from expensive permanent ones to improvised ones. Silo type determines losses as well as fermentation conditions and silage quality. When first introduced silage was made in temporary silos, which might be used for one season or several seasons. Silage is made in clamps on raised ground or small towers of planks and covered with plastic. Some producers use trench silos lined with plastic. Most farms use permanent silos; the commonest are above-ground and the side walls and floor are made of reinforced concrete with an adequate slope - these silos are often covered. Tower silos are rare.

Machinery for making and using silage.
Lack of adequate machinery for collecting and chopping herbage was a major reason for the slow introduction of silage until the second half of twentieth century and is still a limiting factor. Basic machinery for handling whole-crop maize is a single-row forage-harvester, rarely a two-row silo machine. There were several self-propelled harvesters on large public enterprises. Recently second-hand machines and some self-propelled combines have been imported. Beside silo combines for grass, different cutting devices and self-loading trailers are used. For transport conventional single axle or two axle trailers fitted with high sides are used, rarely special or self-loading and unloading trailers. Compaction is by wheeled tractor rarely track-layer. Extracting of silage on small farms is carried out manually.

Figure 15. Grazing of cows and sheep on Sjenica-Pester highland (1000m altitude)

General principles

In order to improve the production of animal feed it is necessary to define agricultural policy and create conditions to enable its improvement, but the economy is in crisis and the political system is in transition. Another problems is the need for hard work in farming. What has to be done to change this situation? What can be done to change this situation?

• Farms and plots must be protected by law from further fragmentation;
• Credit policy should be designed to develop, stimulate and offer incentives in agriculture, but only support branches of agriculture that are a basis for development;
• Encourage young people to remain in the countryside with favourable loans;
• Create conditions to increase the number of livestock per farm;
• Agricultural producers are not organised; therefore it is necessary to develop awareness that forming associations or specific cooperatives are necessary;
• Agricultural advisory services directly linked to producers no longer exist. Farmers learn of innovations (cultivars, technologies, crop protection) mainly through television, radio and specialized journals or small circulation newspapers;
• An expert advisory service works within the Ministry of Agriculture but has agricultural stations coordinated by the Institute of Science Application in Agriculture;
• Research institutions are under the Ministry of Science without any firm link to the Ministry of Agriculture.

Cattle production

Improvement/increase in cattle production can be achieved in two ways:

- By increasing the quantity and quality of fodder, and

- By intensifying selection.

Breed improvement is of the greatest importance. Expert services should choose breeds (genotype) and define clear and sensible breeding and production objectives with clearly defined goals, whether it is milk production, dual-purpose or meat production. For Central Serbia, the right solution is a dual purpose breed the Domestic Spotted cattle, which are good milkers with good fattening traits. For dairying in the region of Vojvodina the best solution is Holstein-Friesian or their crosses.

Sheep

It is possible to improve the productivity of native sheep by crossing with breeds with better milk yield. Sheep milk products are in deficit on the world market, unlike the surplus of lamb meat and mutton. Considering the low capacity of our sheep for meat production, a second item on this agenda should be improvement by use of rams of meat breeds.

Goats

In order to improve and increase goat production it is necessary to:

• change present breeding methods to focus on increase of fertility and milk yield;
• organize the market for goat products;
• provide more, higher quality roughage;
• engage expert and research services to determine the directions of future development of goat breeding as well as in education of producers and breeders;
• intensify selection in goat breeding - increase the number under productivity and testing performance, also biological and progeny testing of male goats.

  Improvement in forage production

Beside stimulating production and improving forage quality on arable land, sown and natural grasslands, attention should also be directed to improvement of processing, conservation and storage technologies of livestock feed. In order to improve the production of forage plants it is necessary to:

• Change the structure of sown areas;
• Increase the production of forage plants, to make it cheaper and to determine the areas for specific forages;
• Emphasise forage quality and its role in protection of the environment;
• Increase and improve the management of natural grasslands;
• Introduce new species, cultivars and hybrids of forage plants into production;
• Find better use for crop by-products;
• Improve the production, choice and availability of forage seeds;
• Develop and introduce standards in production and marketing of livestock feed.

Increase of forage production should be achieved by increasing yield per unit area, which is of special importance in future periods since the biological potential of forages and grasslands is at its lowest level. Exploitation of genetic potential of lucerne is 19.2 % (with irrigation) and 32.0 % (rainfed). In model agricultural enterprises lucerne yield varies from 34.6 % (irrigated) and 57.7 % (rainfed). Similar results are recorded for other plants. Main reasons for low yields are variable weather, low level of technology and low investments.

Making production less expensive:
These possibilities relate to:

a) Change of concepts in livestock nutrition. Instead of feeding the animals “from the bag” fodder should be used since it is much cheaper. Wherever possible grazing should be organized as the least expensive way for exploitation of forage.

b) Growing forage as after-crops and catch crops - crops of "second harvest". Free time after cereal harvest of 70 to 100 days (July to September) with high temperatures, intensive insolation and low precipitation, with can be used for fodder production where irrigation is available.

c) Modify forage choice. Increase the share of annual legumes (for forage and grain). Introduce forage brassicas into production, especially winter forages (which mature and can be used early), and in this way the period of nutrition consisting of green fodder is prolonged.

Defining of production areas: Closer definition of production areas for arable forages would lead to cheaper production. For example, growing soybean in dry, infertile parts of Vojvodina, is not justified; it is better to grow peas sown early in spring which mature before mid July.

An increase of the share of legumes is very important both for quality improvement and as fixers of atmospheric nitrogen, as they provide 60 % of their own nitrogen needs. After legumes have been ploughed-in the soil is more fertile and cleaner. To achieve quality of forage more attention should be turned to following the optimal stages in the development of plants especially in regard to mowing meadows (usually carried out late), losses in processing, conservation and storing of hay, haylage, silage, etc. Therefore, in production of fodder the control and rational use of agrochemicals is a significant issue, as well as the control of the quality of livestock feeds in regard to harmful substances (nitrates, nitrites, heavy metals, pesticide residues), especially for dairying.

Use of of catch-crops, and cover crops especially in winter for livestock or green manure can contribute to soil protection and conservation. Disregard of crop rotation has led to increases in weeds, especially perennial rhizomatous ones resistant to herbicides.

Increased and improved use of grasslands: Natural grasslands potentially represent a considerable source of livestock feed (Figure 15). Their more rational use would lead to faster development of cattle and sheep production, providing cheaper fodder, primarily pasture. However, through mismanagement most natural grasslands are degraded. Through application of balanced fertilizers and planned management with grazing and mowing, yields can be increased considerably (up to 6 - 8 tons ha^-1 of hay) and legume content raised (approx. 30 %), to improve the quality of fodder. Hay will remain the main way of fodder conservation, but ensiling is especially useful in humid regions and wet weather.

Introduction of new species, cultivars and hybrids as well as new methods for their use is also very important. Of over 100 species, currently only 15 are grown in Serbia and Montenegro (without grasses), but only 7 to 8 species are grown in considerable volume. Mainly, these are perennial legumes: lucerne, red clover and birdsfoot trefoil; annual legumes: fodder peas and vetches, also fodder maize, forage sorghum, and Sudan grass, insignificantly fodder kale and rape and fodder beet. Introduction of forages that are not so widespread is also important: Onobrychis viciifolia, Vicia faba, Festo-Lolium hybrids, forage brassicas, etc.

Improved and increased use of crop by-products: Quick and expensive production of meat and milk has eliminated not only numerous sown fodders (fodder beet, annual clovers, etc.) but also the entire series of by- products (leaf and head of sugar beet, green pea forage from canning industry, maize stalks, etc.).

Increased use of secondary products of the processing industry, such as raw and dry beet pulp, brewers yeast, molasses, soybean meal, sunflower meal and rape meal, pomace, grapes, brewery waste, sunflower hulls and other products. Annual production of by-products is: soybean meal 215 000 tons, sunflower meal 75 400 tons, raw sugar beet pulp 1 300 000 tons, fodder meal 200 000 tons.

More stable production and wider choice of forage seed are obligatory for development of seed production. Successful creation of improved forage cultivars should be followed by intensive development of seed production for both domestic and foreign markets. There is already modern capacity for final processing of seeds, favourable soil-climate conditions as a prerequisite for production of seed material of the majority of forage plants and also trained personnel. Production volumes of grass seeds, red clover and birdsfoot trefoil must be significantly increased. It is also important to control the importation of seed material to avoid or prevent the destructive effects of dumping and low prices on domestic production. Import of seed material with only an orange certificate should not be allowed, an OECD certificate must be obligatory to ensure quality and trueness to type.

Development and introduction of standards for production and marketing of livestock feed including forage. There are two reasons: First reason is the need to standardize the diet in modern livestock nutrition, not only in regard to the quantity, but also in respect to quantity and quality of nutrients, and the other reason is the need to market fodder. In the livestock feed industry there are standards, however these are often disregarded, whereas in the marketing of fodder and livestock feeds there are no standards. Therefore, efforts in the development of the series of JUS ISO 9000 standards should be supported in respect to this aspect of plant production. Changes in production and standardization of the quality of livestock feed and technology of livestock nutrition, together with selection and improvement, should contribute to the increase of number of head and production per head of livestock.

Details of institutions and personnel engaged in work related to grassland and grassland-based livestock production is summarised in Table 16.

Atanackovic B.(1982): Pedological cover in Serbia (In Book: Socialistic Republic of Serbia, Tom I), NIRO Knjizevne novine, Belgarde

Dinić B.,Koljajić V., Đorđević N., Lazarević D., Terzić D.(1998): Ensilability of forages crops. Contemporary Agriculture,Vol.48,No 1-2,155-162

Djordjević V., Radojević D., Stošić M. (1968): Productivity of grass-legume mixtures in mountainous region (in Serbian). Institute for Forage Crops:Review of Research Works,Vol.II-III, 193-206, Krusevac

Djukić D., Mihailović V., Tomić Z. (1996):Results of breeding of forage crops in Yugoslavia on the end of XX century (in Serbian).VIII Yugoslav Forage Crops Syposium:Review of papers,vol.26,5-16, Novi Sad

Erić P., Starčević Lj., Crnobarac J. (1996): Agrotechnologyy of forage crops on the end of XX century. VIII Yugoslav Forage Crops Syposium: Review of papers, vol.26, 17-24, Novi Sad

FAOSTAT (2005) http://www.fao.org/waicent/portal/statistics_en.asp

Kojić M.,Slavica Mrfat-Vukelić,Zora Dajić,Sava Ajder,Stošić M.,Lazarević D. (1992): Meadow vegetation on Rudnjanska Plateau and Radocelo Mt.). Medicinske komunikacije, Beograd, Institut za krmno bilje,Krusevac,1992,1-114

Kojić M.,Mrfat-Vukelić S.,Dajić Z.,Djordjević-Milosević S.(2004): Meadows and pastures of Serbia (in Serbian). Agricultural research institute Serbia,Beograd, 1-89

Krajinović M., Ćinkulov M., Pihler I., Žujović M. (2004): The situation and capability of development of sheep production in our country. Acta Agriculture Serbica,Vol.IX,17,25-32.

Lazarević D., Mrfat-Vukelić Slavica, Stošić M., Dinić B. (2003a): Potential of natural grasslands in mountainous and hilly areas of Serbia. Proc. Of the 12^th Symposium of the EGF “Optimal Forage Systems for Animal Production and the Environment”. Vol. 8. Pleven, Bulgaria, 26-28 May.60-64.

Lazarević D., Stošić M., Mrfat-Vukelić Slavica, Dinić B., Terzić D. (2003b): Dynamics of grassland production in hilly and mountainous regions of Serbia. Proc. of 11th International Scientific Symposium, Forage Conservation, 9th-11th September, Nitra Slovac Republic, 82-84.

Lazarević R. (2003): Contemporary cattle production. Agricons, Belgrade.

Lugić Z., Zapletanova I., Dinić B., Lazarević D. (2002): Investigation of Agronomic Important Traits of Diploid and Tetraploid Red Clover (Trifolium pratense L.) Cultivars in Agroecological conditions of Serbia, Multi-function Grasslands, EGF, vol.7, 84-86.

Marković P. (1993): Agricultural atlas of Serbia (in Serbian), Belgrade.

Ocokoljić S., Mijatović M., Čolić D., Bošnjak D., Milošević P. (1983): Natural and artificial grasslands (in Serbian). Nolit, Belgrade.

Plavšić M., Trivunović S., Zelenjak M.(2004):State and posibilities of promotion of cattle production in Serbia and Montenegro. Acta Agriculture Serbica,Vol.IX,17,19-24.

Radojević D., Stošić M., Mladenović R. (1980): Floral and productive changes of Nardetum strictae association on Kopaonik Mt. (1 600 m above sea level) caused by fertilization. Proceedings 8^th general meeting of the EGF, Zagreb, 163-169.

Rakicevic T.(1982): Climatic characteristics in Serbia (Book: Socialistics Republic of Serbia, Tom I), NIRO Knjizevne novine, Belgrade

Šoštarić-Pisačić K., Radojević D., Stošić M. (1971): Mixtures for sown grasslands (in Serbian).Poljoprivredna enciklopedija, Zagreb, sveska 3, 340-370.

Stošić M.(1974):Effect of Mineral Fertilizers on the Yiled and Floral Composition of a Mountain Meadw of the Danthonietum calycinae Type.Journal for Scientific Agricultural Research, tom 97,121-147, Belgrade

Stosic M., Radojevic D.(1980):Duration and suitability of grass-legume mixtures for forage production in the mountain regions of Serbia.Procc.8th General Meeting EGF,Zagreb

Stošić M., Mrfat-Vukelić Slavica, Kojić M. (1989): The influence of environment and fertilizers on the yield and floristic composition of grasslands in Serbia. Proceedings XVI international grassland congress, Nice, 1449-1450.

Stosic M.(1990):Influence of Mineral Fertilizers on Yield and Quality of Legume-Grasas  Mixtures and on the Status of Phosphorus in the Soil.Second International Symposium:Plant-Soil Interaction at Low pH,Beckley,USA,75

Stošić M., Koljajić V., Lazarević R., Dinić B., Lazarević D. (1996a): Influence of ecological conditions on systems of forage production. Biotehnologija u stočarstvu, 3-4, 15-25.

Stošić M., Lazarević D., Tomić Zorica, Dinić B. (1996b): Investigation on the effect of the time and nitrogen fertiliser appllication pattern on the production dynamics and quality in grassland of the Festuceto - Agrostietum type in the mountain Kopaonik. Journal of Scientific Agricultural Research,No 203, 79-87.

Stošić M., Lazarević D., Dinić B. (1996c): Influence of date of cutting and mineral fertilizers on yield distribution of ass. Agrostietum vulgaris on Kopaonik Mt. Zbornik radova Instituta za ratarstvo i povrtarstvo, 26, 309-316.

Stosic M., Lazarevic R, Dinic B., Lazarevic R, Ostojic S. (1997): Agroecological, Technological and Organizational Conditions of Forage Production in Yugoslavia. Biotehnologija u stocarstvu, no 3-4,89-102 (in Serbian)

Stosic M., Koljajic V., Dinic B., Lazarevic D.,Djordjevic N.(1999): Some aspects of forage production and Conservation.Biotehnologija u stocarstvu, no 5-6,41-49.

Stošić, M., Slavica Mrfat-Vukelić, Lazarević, D. (1999): Effects of fertilizers on floristic and production changes in Ass. Danthonietum calycinae at different locations of hilly mountain regions of Serbia. Journal of Mountain Agriculture in the Balkans. Vol. 2, No. 2, 178-187.

Stošić M., Lazarević D. (2002): Forage crops on plough land (in Serbian). Poljoprivredna biblioteka. Draganić, Beograd, 1-65

Stošić M., Lazarević D., Dinić B. (2003): Improvement of production of fodder on grasslands in function of livestock production development in hilly mountainous region. 7^th International Symposium “Modern Trends in Livestock Production”. Biotechnology in Animal Husbandry. Vol 19, 5-6. 413-421.

Stošić M., Lazarević D., Terzić D., Simić A.(2004): Effect of Phosphorus in Grassland-based Livestock feed production. Acta Agriculturae Serbica. Vol.IX, 17. (Special Issue) 263-272.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to thank his colleagues: Dr D. Lazarevic and Dr B. Dinic for their participation in preparing this text, and Mr. D. Sokolovic for technical assistance.

Professor Dr Milorad Stosic Centre for Forage Crops Tel: +38137 423863 Fax: +38137 441295 e-mail: stole10@ptt.yu    37000 Krusevac Trg Kosturnica 50 Serbia

This profile was written in December 2004 and will be updated from time to time.

[The profile was edited by J.M. Suttie and S.G. Reynolds in January 2005 and livestock data modified by S.G. Reynolds in October 2006].