Abstract

Inadequate feed supply and poor nutrition during the dry winter months (December to April) is one of the biggest constraints to the promotion of livestock development in Nepal. Malnutrition over a significant part of the year reduces the condition of the animals and adversely affects production levels.

Cultivation of oats (Avena sativa L.) in Nepal was started some 100 years ago by landlords in the Terai region (bordering India) in order to provide green fodder during the dry winter months for their elephants. However, testing of oat cultivars started on government farms and stations only in the 1970s. Cultivation of oats on larger areas became more popular during the 1980-1994 Livestock Development Projects, when the main objective was to increase livestock productivity through better feeding and proper healthcare and management. At present oat cultivation is concentrated mainly in Khetland (irrigated land) of the Terai and Low-hills and in the Bariland (rain fed) both in the Low and Mid-hills regions. With the introduction of new management systems (proper amounts of manure and fertilizers, multi-cut cultivars, better combinations such as oats + vetch and oats + peas) both commercial dairy farmers and resource-poor farmers have greatly reduced the feed shortage problem for their animals during the dry winter months as well as achieving a 30% reduction in the cost of feed. The result has been that under forage based milk production systems in the peri-urban areas of Illam, the production cost of one litre of milk is around Rupees 10.0 (USD 0.13), whereas in urban areas of the country under the concentrate + paddy straw feeding milk production system the cost of one litre of milk is about Rupees 18.0 (USD 0.23). Also, for resource-poor farmers oat cultivation has resulted in a net profit of Rs. 1538 per animal per month per arable land area of 0.075 ha. With the introduction of multi-cut cultivars and new management technologies, the yield of fodder oats has gone up from 15-20 tons/ha to 50-93 tons/ha. For commercial dairy pocket areas, the oat cultivars Awapuni, Swan (NEP), Caraville, Charisma, Canadian and Kent are recommended up to an elevation of 1600 m. Oats + vetch is the best mixture for high yields and improved soil fertility. For resource-poor farmers, oat cultivars Canadian and Kent are recommended and a combination of oats + vetch.

Oat seed production is a viable source of income generation in many areas of Nepal and under optimum management practices oats can produce on average 2 tons of seed per hectare after taking one cut for fodder. The total area under oats is 2,172 hectares and 43,440 households are now cultivating oats.

Introduction

Oats (Avena sativa L.) are commonly called Jai in most parts of Nepal. Fodder oats are an important animal feed for all categories of livestock and the grains are used as concentrate feed and are very much relished by horses, sheep and poultry. It is also an essential highly nutritive fodder used by dairy farmers and can be fed in any form, i.e. as green forage, silage, or hay during scarcity periods of the year. It is most widely cultivated by dairy farmers in order to feed their milking cows and buffaloes. Relatively small quantities of green forage are fed to goats, poultry and bullocks. 

Oats have been under testing since the 1970s, but the two cultivars Kent and Swan were distributed to relatively large numbers of farmers only after the inception of the Second Livestock Development Project (1980-1994). Up to the mid 1980s Swan and Kent were cultivated in most part of the country as winter fodder. In the 1980s, 22 cultivars of oats were brought from New Zealand. The Pasture and Fodder Division started its adaptability testing under multi-locational trials particularly in Pakhribas, Lumle, Khumaltar, Tarahara, Janakpur, Ranjitpur, Nepalganj and Khumaltar. In the 1990s one cultivar of oats called Canadian was received by a volunteer from Canada and was included in different testing sites. Similarly, in the same year two cultivars from Pakistan, Swan (PAK) and PDLV G-5 (PAK) were received and put into the testing programme. Again in the 1990s some cultivars of oats, such as Bundel 851, Bundel 810, JHO 822 and JHO 810, were received from India. Details of the origin, cultivars characterizations are presented in Table1.

Table 1. Origin and Characteristics of Oat Cultivars

Early: 180 to 190 DOM; Medium: 191-200 DOM and Late: > 201 DOM = Days of Maturity.

Importance of Oats

The inadequate feed supply and poor nutrition during the dry winter season (December-April) is one of the biggest constraints to the promotion of livestock development in Nepal. Although Rajbhandary and Shah (1981) reported that "livestock get the most green matter from June to September and the quality of forage available during this period could be regarded as more or less adequate", it is a different story in winter when rice straw, maize stover and other fibrous crop by-products are important foods (Gatenby et al., 1989), because the crop residues are very poor in quality. In the hills and the Terai, during the dry winter season, animals are fed merely sub-maintenance rations and are virtually in a semi-starved condition for a period of seven months. Thus malnutrition over two thirds of the year drastically reduces the condition of the animals and adversely affects production. Therefore, there has always been a need to find a source of green forage for the dry winter (Kshatri et al., 1993).

It has already been established that oats (Avena sativa L.) and vetch (Vicia villosa var. dasycarpa) can be grown as fodder crops on all types of soils, apart from alkaline or waterlogged conditions, in all regions where wheat and barley are grown. Oats, as the most important cereal fodder crop, can also be grown in the winter season in the areas where wheat and barley are grown. In addition, oats are quick growing, palatable, succulent and nutritious and acceptable to all categories of livestock and can be fed in many forms such as green forage, silage, hay, straw and grains, including during the lean period (December to April) of the year. It has also been established that vetch can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 1984 as quoted by Kshatri et. al, 1993) reported that vetch could fix up to 110 kg of N/ha and could also be grown during the winter season as a forage legume.

Although testing and use of two cultivars of oats (Kent and Swan) had taken place on the various Livestock Development Farms since the 1970s, oats were first introduced to Nepalese farmers on a relatively large scale during the First and Second Livestock Development Projects from 1980 to 1994. This introduction of oats for farmer use had two broad major objectives:

(a) To alleviate inadequate feed supply and poor animal nutrition during the dry winter, and (b) to reduce the cost of production of animal by-products, mainly milk.

Performance Evaluation of Oat Cultivars

A detailed on-station varietal testing of different cultivars was done in Khumaltar as well as on other research stations. Agronomic characteristics, green matter yield (ton/ha), seed yield (ton/ha) were evaluated for each cultivars. These studies were carried out to document the performance of the cultivars and to fulfil the request of the Department of Livestock Services in order to prepare a suitable but productive mini-kit for farmers.

Plant performance is dependent on management and environmental factors. Morphological characteristics of sixteen oat cultivars tested at Khumaltar indicated that the tallest cultivars were NARC-1 (PAK), Bundel 851, PDLV G-5 (PAK) , Canadian, Swan (PAK) and Awapuni. Tiller number differed from 5 to 6 per plant and leaf number per plant was in the range of 4 to 5. Days of Maturity (DOM) ranged from 180 to 212 days. Cultivars with early days of maturity were Kent, 346/2, 323/02, Swan (PAK), and Swan (NEP); with medium days of maturity were Canadian, PDLV-G5 (PAK), and Bundel; and cultivars with late days of maturity were NARC-1 (PAK), 83INC 19 G3, CDA 1001, Awapuni, Taiko, Omihi, Charisma and Caraville.

Green matter and seed yield differed with station-to-station, under irrigated and rainfed conditions and under different ecological conditions. The average green matter yield ranged from 10.3 tons/ha for Omihi to 60.9 ton/ha for 346/2 in Khumaltar, whereas in Tarahara the lowest green fodder yield was obtained from Bundel 851 (27.8 ton/ha), and from 323/02 (28 ton/ha) while the highest yielder was Kent (40 ton/ha). In Pakhribas, Lumle, Rasuwa, Nepalgunj and Parwanipur, the highest yielders respectively were Caraville (38 ton/ha), Caraville (17.9 ton/ha), Bundel 851 (17.1 ton/ha), PDLV-G5 (16.8 ton/ha) and Kent (20.9 ton/ha).

In Khumaltar the highest seed yield was obtained from Swan (NEP) (3.9 ton/ha) followed by NARC-1 (PAK) (2.5 ton/ha) and Caraville (2.4 ton/ha). In Tarahara, Kent produced 3.2 ton/ha and Caraville 2.1 ton/ha. In Pakhribas the cultivars with the best seed production potential were Amuri (2.2 ton/ha) and Caraville (2.0 ton/ha). In Lumle, Rasuwa and Nepalgung the best potential seed yielder were respectively Bundel 851 (3.36 ton/ha), Awapuni (4.4 ton/ha) and Kent (2.7 ton/ha).

Quality Evaluation of Oat Cultivars

Reaction of farmers to oat cultivation has been very positive; oats was liked for its green forage yield during the dry winter. Increased milk yield from feeding fresh green oat forage was reported by all the farmers who had lactating animals. This was due to its palatable, succulent and nutritious nature. In 1989/90-quality analysis of oats from eleven sites of the Koshi Hill Command Areas in Pakhribas (1020 to 1650 masl) was undertaken. Similarly, fifteen cultivars of oats were analyzed in Khumaltar in 1996. In both cases CP (crude protein) content at pre-bloom stage was more than 7% (except from Awapuni, PDLV (PAK), and NARC-1 (PAK). Although CP content depends on the stage at which the plant is harvested, in most cases oats have been regarded as nutritious cereal fodder (Table 2).

Table 2:  Proximate analysis of green forage (Percent dry matter basis)

Fertilizer: N: P205:K20 @ 80:60:40 + 5 ton FYM per hectare. Irrigation - 2, Stage of plant: Pre-bloom.

Proximate analysis was carried out at Animal Nutrition Laboratory, Khumaltar (1996).

How Farmers Cultivate Fodder Oats?

Farmers adopt different methods of fodder oats cultivation; the three common ones are:

(i) Cultivation on Khetland (Irrigated land) in the Terai

Paddy is harvested in the second week of November, followed by two ploughings to thoroughly prepare the land. Rich farmers use tractors whereas substantial farmers use the Desi plough (which ploughs to a depth of 30 cm) pulled by a pair of oxen or buffaloes. 5-7 tons per hectare of Farm Yard Manure (FYM) and 100 kg urea are then broadcast. The total amount of urea is divided into the number of cuttings to be taken while all the quantity of FYM is applied as a basal dose. If four cuttings are to be taken then the 100 kg of urea is divided into four parts and 25 kg is applied as the basal dose along with FYM. The fodder oat seed rate is maintained at 100 kg per hectare and is sown (broadcast) in the fourth week of November. The first cutting is generally taken in the fourth week of December (after a month). The area to be harvested per day depends on the number of animals. When half of the area is harvested, urea is top dressed according to the size of the plot and irrigation is given. By the time the other half is harvested, the first half is ready to be harvested again. Fodder oats can be harvested   up to the month of April.

(ii) Cultivation on Khetland (Irrigated land) in the Low hills

After the paddy is harvested in the third week of November, one ploughing is done by local plough (to a depth of about 23 cm) and FYM is broadcast at 5 tons per hectare. After a second ploughing to thoroughly prepare the land, 50 kg/ha of urea is applied, split into basal and other doses depending upon the number of cuttings to be taken. 120 kg/ha of oat seed is sown (broadcast/ behind the furrows made by local plough) in the first week of December, followed by the use of a land leveler to level the land and to ensure that the seed has good soil moisture contact. A first cutting is taken in the second week of January (50 days after sowing) and subsequent cuttings are taken at 40-day intervals. Split doses of urea and irrigation water are applied after each cut.

(iii) Cultivation on Bariland (Rain fed) in the Low and Mid hills

Maize is harvested in the last week of August. After that one ploughing is done to eradicate weeds and maize roots, FYM is applied at the rate of 7-10 tons/ha and a second ploughing is done to thoroughly prepare the land, to mix in the FYM and to level the land. Seed is sown (broadcast) at 120 kg per hectare in the first week of September and a spade is used to ensure good seed contact with soil and moisture. A first oat cut is generally taken in the first week of November (60 days after sowing). Subsequent cuttings are taken at 45-day intervals. In all cases, if seed is to be harvested then no further fodder cuts are made after taking the initial cut for fodder.

Cultivation of Oats in Different Areas

As it is well established that fodder oats has the potential to produce nutritious fodder during the dry winter, the Department of Livestock Services (DLS) initiated oat cultivation in all seventy-five districts of the country through the distribution of minikits for winter fodder oats alone and in mixture with vetch (both Vicia bengalensis cv Popany and Vicia villosa var. dasycarpa cv Nemoi were used), pea (Pisum sativum) or berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum), depending on their suitability for particular areas.

At the same time research focused on resource-poor farmers and commercial dairy farming areas. There were two major farmer issues to be addressed:

(a) Shortage of fodder in the dry winter period (December to April), and

(b) High cost of producing milk.

In fact, for the researchers one additional problem faced by the farmers was identified, and that was the low average fodder oat production per hectare. Kshatri et al.(1993) stated that the average fodder oat production by farmers in the eastern hills was between 18-22 ton/ha which was less than the 60 ton/ha obtained in a similar Indian context (Pathak and Jukhmola, 1983).In the five sites of the Farming Systems Research Command areas, oat cultivars such as Amuri and JHO 822 had produced an average fodder yield of 15.5 ton/ha, and from Swan 18 ton/ha. These yields were obtained by the farmers under 80:40:20 N: P205: K₂0 and a two cuttings management system. Although it was observed that the fodder yield differs from one location to another due to environmental and management factors such as altitude, soil type, rainfall, fertilizer etc., the overall production of fodder oats on farmers’ fields was not satisfactory. In the Low hills, the average production was reported to be 15-20 ton/ha in three cuts and in the Terai; it was 20-25 ton/ha in three cuts.

For seed production, an average production figure (in tons/hectare) from farmers’ land was not known to the extension officers in order to be able to fix the area to produce the amount of seed required by the Department of Livestock Services.

A new system of management: Oats Production in Leasehold Group Sites

In leasehold farmers group sites in both the low and transitional belts, one ploughing with local plough was done after paddy harvest. FYM at the rate of 5 ton/ha was broadcast uniformly and another ploughing done. 80:60:40 kg (N: P₂O₅ and K₂0) was the recommended dose of fertilizer, where N was used in three split doses, applied after each cut under irrigated conditions, otherwise it was applied as one basal dose under rain fed conditions (with the chemical fertilizer applied in the furrows, covered with a thin soil layer and immediately seed was sown on the same line and smoothly covered with soil). After sowing, a land leveler was used to ensure good seed contact with soil and moisture. Where oats were sown in mixtures with vetch and peas then these were first inoculated. The first cutting was taken after 45-50 days and subsequent cuttings after 30 days.

In the low belt of all leasehold districts, relatively larger amounts of green fodder were obtained from the oats and legume mixture combination than from the sole crop of either oats or legume. During 1996-1998 at low altitudes the average production of oat + vetch, oat + pea, and oat was 31, 27 and 25 tons/ha respectively, however a tremendous increase in yield was found during 1999-2001, due to better management by the farmers and the realization of the contribution it could make to milk yields (Table 3). Comparing the two methods i.e. recommended (fertilizer) and the original farmers' practice (non-fertilizer use), the recommended method gave more than twice the yield in both low hills as well as in the transitional belt.

In Makawanpur, the highest yield was obtained from oats+vetch; in Kavre from oats + berseem; in Sindhuplanchowk from berseem; in Ramechap from oats+peas and in Dhading it was oats+berseem. Under farmers practice of manure application (control) the treatments which gave highest yields were: oats+vetch, oats + vetch, berseem, oats+vetch and oats + vetch in Makawanpur, Kavre, Sindhupalchowk, Ramechap and Dhading respectively. This suggests that at low rates of manure applicaton, the oats + vetch combination performed best (Table 4).

Table 3. Average green matter yields (tons/ha) for various crop combinations (fertilized and unfertilized) in Makwanpur, Kavre, Sindhupalchok and Ramechap (1996-1998) and in Makwanpur, Kavre, Sindhupalchok, Ramechap and Dhading (1999-2001) in the Low Belt (400-1200 masl).

Fertilizer

Non-fertilizer

Source: Annual Report. 1996-2001;PFRD, Annual Report. 1996-2001;PFRD, HLFFDP. 1996-2001

In the transitional belt under the recommended practice of manure and fertilizer application, oats + vetch, oats + vetch, oats + vetch, oats and oats were the highest yielders in Makawanpur, Kavre, Sindhupalchowk, Ramechap and Dhading sites respectively. However, under the control practice of manure application, the treatments oats + vetch, oats + pea, oats + vetch, oats and oats were the highest yielders in Makawanpur, Kavre, Sindhupalchowk, Ramechap and Dhading districts respectively (Table 4).

Table 4. Average green matter yields (tons/ha) for various crop combinations (fertilized and unfertilized) in Makwanpur, Kavre, Sindhupalchok and Ramechap (1996-1998) and in Makwanpur, Kavre, Sindhupalchok, Ramechap and Dhading (1999-2001) in the Transitional Belt (1200-1800 masl).

Fertilizer

Non-fertilizer

Source: Annual Report. 1996-2001; PFRD, Annual Report. 1996-2001; PFRD' HLFFDP. 1996-2001

Oat Seed Production in Leasehold Group Sites

In order to make seed available at sowing time to the farmers and also to generate sales and income for farmers, seed production activities were conducted with the leasehold farmers. During 1996/1998, the highest average seed yield was obtained from the location of Ramechap. In Kavre and Sindhupalchok districts, all three treatments produced a consistent level of seed, however, in Makawanpur, oat as a sole crop produced as high as 3.6 tons/ha of seed. In Ramechap, oats + vetch combinations gave 2.6 tons/ha of oat seed.

During the 1999-2001 period, 5 districts both in the low altitude belt (400-1200 m) and the transitional belt (1201-1800 m) were selected for seed production, from oat, vetch, pea and berseem (low altitude belt) and oat, vetch and pea in the transitional belt. The range of oat seed yield was 1.82 to 5.3 tons/ha, for vetch: 0.12 to 1.1 tons/ha, for pea: 0.02 to 0.5 tons/ha. in the transitional belt; in the low belt the highest yields were for oats: 3.7 tons/ha, vetch: 1.1 tons/ha, pea: up to 0.7 tons/ha and berseem 1.1 tons/ha .

Cultivation of Oats in Commercial Dairy Pocket Areas

In order to upgrade the feed situation in dairy pocket areas, a continuous programme of dairy farmer oriented research was conducted in six districts of Nepal. During 1996-1998, dairy pocket areas selected for integrated research were in Rupandehi, Kaski and Illam districts, whereas from 1999-2001 areas were in Kavre, Dhading and Rautahat districts.

Two projects (one involving the testing of eight promising oat cultivars and the other oats in mixtures with vetch (Vicia dasycarpa) and pea (Pisum sativum) were undertaken from 1996 to 1998 in Rupendehi (500-600 masl), Kaski (800-850 masl) and Illam  (1500-1550 masl) and during 1999 to 2001 in Kavre (890-1020 masl), Dhading (810-840 masl) and Rautahat (500-550 masl).

Under the recommended method [i.e. FYM 5 ton + N: P₂O₅: and K₂O at 80:60:40 kg/ha] all eight cultivars yielded more than under the normal farmers practice [Farmers practice: FYM @ 5 ton/ha]. Similarly, although environmental and management factors play a major role in fodder production, higher yields were obtained in subsequent years (Tables 5 and 6).

Table 5.  Average green matter yield (ton/ha) in Dairy Pocket Areas of Rupendhi, Kaski, and Illam (1996-1998) and Kavre, Dhading and Rautahat (1999-2001).

Fertilizer

Non-fertilizer