NEPAL

by 
Dinesh Pariyar

1. INTRODUCTION

2. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

2.1 Mountains
2.2 Hills
2.3 Terai

3. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE

5.1 Pasture resources of different climatical regions
5.2 Pasture land productivity & carrying capacity
5.3 Pasture and fodder seed

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE RESOURCES 

6.1 Opportunities
6.2 Options

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL

8. REFERENCES

9. CONTACTS

1. INTRODUCTION

Nepal is a landlocked country which lies along the southern slopes of the Himalayan mountains. It has India on its southern, eastern and western borders, and the Tibetan Autonomous Region of the Peoples' Republic of China to the north (Abington 1992). The country has a population of 20 M people and a land area of 147,180 km². It is 800 km from east to west, varies from 144 to 240 km north to south, and lies between 80-88° E and 26-31° N (see Figure 1).
 
 

Figure 1. Map of Nepal

2. CLIMATE AND AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES

Nepal has three distinct topographic zones. The southern part of the country is the Terai, which has a low elevation and is a northern extension of the Ganges Plains of India. The topography is flat. This zone ranges from 25-32 km in width and covers 22% of the total land mass.

Rising above the Terai plains, and following an east/west alignment, are ranges of hills generally referred to as the "mid-hills (1300 - 2500 m), and the "high-hills" (2500 - 5000 m). To the north of these "high-hills", are the Himalayas proper, again aligned east/ west, which include the highest mountains in the world (5000 - 8848 m). Their rugged mountain topography constitutes almost 78% of the land mass of Nepal.

Nepal has a number of climatic regions characterized by six climatic features (Manandhar 1989).

• Rainfall is unevenly distributed through the country
• As Nepal is located in the northern limit of the tropics, it receives both summer and winter rain
• When the monsoon trough remains stationary along the foot of the Himalayas, the whole country receives heavy continuous rain for two to three days resulting in flooding and land-slides
• Cyclonic storms, formed in the Bay of Bengal during the monsoon period, result in a high probability of climatic disasters in the eastern part of the country
• There is remarkable change of wind direction from season to season
• There is great variation in the amount of rainfall from region to region due to mountain barriers which force the ascent of moisture bearing winds leading to precipitation on windward slopes

The orientation of mountain ranges, deep valleys, slopes and aspects are major factors creating a number of micro-climatic regimes within short distances from south to north. The summer monsoon is the most important influence on climatic variation, and consequently the country as a whole is characterized by four distinct seasons:- winter (December to February), spring (March to May), summer (June to September) and autumn (October to November).

Based on the topographic features, Nelson (1981) divided the country into five major physiographic regions which run in parallel fashion from the north-west to the south-east. However, in another approach Nepal was divided into three broad agro-ecological zones viz. Mountain, Hills and Terai, in order to facilitate development planning and administration, and to ensure equitable distribution of development efforts to all parts of the county. This approach segregates different areas of the county into groups with similar constraints and potential (topographic and climatic), and has immense significance for macro-level planning (APROSC 1990).

2.1 Mountains

The mountain region occurs at elevations above 2000 m. The cultivated areas of this region are the inner Himalayan valleys and some southerly aspects of mountains. The inner Himalayan valleys have a dry and cool climate. The average daily temperature fluctuates between 9 to 10 ^oC during June/July. The annual rainfall varies from 140 mm in the west to 900 mm in the east.

2.2 Hills

The hill region is a wide belt of land aligned east to west in the middle part of Nepal. The elevation ranges from 300 to 2000 m. The average daily temperature fluctuates between 2 to 17^o C during December/January and between 13 to 27^o C during June/July. The average rainfall varies from 1000 mm in the west to 2800 mm in the east, with more winter rain in the west than in the east.

2.3 Terai

The Terai region is a flat plain in the south running from east to west. The elevation ranges from 60 to 300 m. The Terai has a tropical to sub-tropical climate with the main tropical region in the east, and drier areas in the west. The average daily temperature fluctuates between 7 to 24^o C during December/January and between 24 to 41^o C during June/July. The rainfall ranges from 600 mm in the west to 1300 mm in the east, with winter rain occurring in the west.

3. SOILS AND TOPOGRAPHY

The soils of Nepal are highly variable and are derived mainly from young parent material (Manandhar 1989). Soils have been classified on the basis of soil texture, mode of transportation, and color, and are broadly divided into:-

• Alluvial soil
• Sandy and alluvial soil
• Gravelly soil
• Residual
• Glacial soil

3.1 Alluvial soil

Alluvial soil is found in the valleys of the Terai region and in the middle hill valleys around Kathmandu and Pokhara. The valleys lie between the Siwalikhs and Mahabharat Lekh hills which widen out in places to form flat fertile valleys called Dun valleys. The Siwaliks (also called Churia hills) range from 300-700 m and form the southern sub-range or the pre-Himalayan range. The Mahabharat Lekh is a prominent belt of uplifted mountain in the north, parallel to the sub-range. In the inner Terai, the major Dun valleys are the Dang, Deokhuri, Surkhet, Chitwan, Kamla and Trijuga, while in the middle hills they are the Kathmandu and Pokhara. New alluvial soil, but with more sand and silt than clay, is being deposited in the flood plain areas along the river courses. Alluvial soil is also found in the slightly higher areas above the flood plain covering a greater part of the Terai. The nutrient content of new alluvial soil is fair to medium depending on how long they have been cultivated. On the other hand, the nutrient content of old alluvial soils is very low.

3.2 Sandy and alluvial soil

Valleys in the mid-hills of Kathmandu and Pokhara have sandy and silty alluvial soil, which is fairly fertile. In the Kathmandu valley, some deposits of peat mare (Kumero) have been found. This is a diatomaceous clay which is used for painting house walls during festivals in rural areas .

In addition, the Kathmandu valley is a source of dark clay / silty clay (Kalimati) soil which is obtained from deep underground pits and is used as a manure mainly for potato and other vegetable crops. This soil is rich in humus as well as in potash and has a small amount of calcium.

3.3 Gravelly soil

The foot of the Churia hills has soils of mixed gravel and pebbles. This soil is not useful for agriculture as it has a very coarse texture and cannot hold sufficient moisture for plant growth. Such soils were deposited by rivers originating in the Churia hills and have a high lime content. Some soils in high mountain areas are also coarse textured gravels.

3.4 Residual soil

This type of soil is found mostly on the ridges and slopes of the mountains. Soils of the Churia hills are very young and coarse, and are dry for most of the year. Soils on the slopes of mid-hills are medium to low in plant nutrients but less productive due to moisture and climatic limitations.

3.5 Glacial soil

These soils, found in high Himalayan regions, are mostly rocky. They are covered with snow most of the time.

4. RUMINANT LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION SYSTEMS

Livestock population in Nepal for 2000/2001 was estimated to be 7.0 M cattle, 3.6 M buffalo, 6.5 M goats, and 0.85 M sheep (Table 1).

The distribution of livestock by ecological belts indicates that over half of the cattle, buffalo, goats, and sheep are being maintained in the hills, and about one third in the Terai (Table 2).

Table 1: Nepal statistics for ruminant numbers, beef, veal, buffalo meat and milk production, cattle imports and beef and veal imports for the period 1992-2001.

Source: FAO Database 2002

 

Table 2. Livestock population by ecological zones

Source : Agricultural Statistic Division, HMG, 1996/97

4.1 Livestock population, consumption and production

The per capita consumption of milk, meat, and fish in Nepal is 44.1, 8.1 and 0.8 kg respectively. This indicates a much lower consumption of animal protein by the Nepalese population than in developed countries (Mishra & Shrestha 1996). The status of Nepalese society in the global context for per capita consumption of energy, protein and fats from livestock products is low (Table 3).

Table 3. Per capita consumption of energy, protein and fats in 1987

Source : Agricultural Statistic Division, HMG, 1996/97

The average milk production level per cow is low and there is significant potential for increasing yield to 1500-2700 L per lactation. Similarly, milk production from buffalo is low and can be raised to 1200-1500 L per lactation. Both milk and meat production can be increased through improved breeding, feeding, health and animal management practices.

Ruminant livestock production systems are closely related with other important components of farm production, namely, cropping and forestry. There are three major ruminant production systems which predominate in Nepal.

4.2 Ruminant production systems

(a) Transhumance systems. This system is practised in the temperate, sub-alpine and alpine regions where cattle, buffaloes, sheep and goats migrate from one place to another throughout the year. This system utilizes forage resources available from temperate, sub-alpine and alpine pastures during the monsoon season, and from crop stubble during the winter season.

(b) Sedentary systems. This system prevails at the lower altitudes of the mid-hills (900 - 1000 m) and utilizes all the available forage in and around the village. The main grazing areas during summer are the scrub-lands and community grazing lands around the village. The livestock population is sedentary and consists of working oxen, dry buffaloes, a small number of cattle, and goats. The animals spend half their time grazing. Other forage resources are crop by-products and tree fodders during winter, and grasses and weeds from crop-lands during the summer (Joshi 1992).

(c) Stall-fed systems. This system prevails mainly in the low to mid-hills (400 - 900 m) and peri-urban areas, and comprises milking buffalo, exotic or cross-bred cattle and buffaloes. The system predominates in areas of intensive cultivation and marketing, where the availability of crop by-products is adequate to maintain the animals in winter. In addition to crop by-products, tree fodder, grasses and weeds collected from farm-lands are also an important forage source.

4.3 Constraints to livestock development

Lack of infrastructural support, a poor feed resource base, lack of encouragement of private sector participation in development, and weak research and extension services are the main constraints to livestock development in Nepal. Other constraints are ineffective quality control, and inadequate monitoring systems.

5. THE PASTURE RESOURCE

The pasture lands have historically been a major source of livestock rearing in Nepal for many generations. They have been utilized in a variety of ways in sedentary and migratory grazing systems. At present, about 1.7 M ha, or about 12% of the area of the country, constitutes pasture land. Due to extremes of climate, poor management and constant gazing, these areas have been degraded to an alarming extent. Such lands are less productive than well managed grasslands, but they are an integral part of animal rearing systems.

Pasture lands vary from subtropical grasslands at lower elevations to alpine meadows on ridge tops in the mid-hills and high mountain valleys of the inner Himalayan range. They include areas of Manang, Mustang, Dolpa and Mugu. Pasture lands are mostly located in the hills and only 4 percent is found in low-lying areas (Table 4).

Table 4. Pasture land by physiographic regions

Source: Land Resource Mapping Project (1986)

5.1 Pasture resources of different climatic regions

Tropical pasture lands are dominated by the grasses Phragmites karka, Saccharum spontaneum and Imperata cylindrica (Whyte 1968). Some also contain 2 m tall Cymbopogon jwarancusa and Bothriochloa intermedia (Stainton 1973). Because of man's activities, Imperata cylindrica is a dominant species throughout, and the weed Eupatorium is gradually replacing many of the palatable species.

Sub-tropical pasture lands are mostly associated with Pinus roxburghii forests. They are heavily grazed and are infested with Eupatorium adenophorum (Banmara), Pteridium aquilinum (bracken fern), Urtica parviflora (Stinging Nettle) and Artemisia vulgaris. These grasslands are termed the Themeda-Arundinella type. The main forage species are Arundinella bengalensis Druce, A. nepalensis, Bothriochloa intermedia, B. pertusa, Chrysopogon gryllus, Cynodon dactylon, Heteropogon contortus, Apluda mutica, Brachiaria decumbens, Imperata cylindrica and Eragrostis pilosa Beauv.

Temperate pasture lands are associated with oak or mixed broad-leafed species such as Quercus or bluepine forests. These pasture lands are very important, but due to heavy grazing for many years, less palatable species such as Arundinella hookeri are found. In many areas, Andropogon tristis has been replaced with less palatable forage species such as Arundinella hookeri. The common forage species are Arundinella hookeri, Andropogon tristis, Poa spp., Chrysopogon gryllus, Dactylis glomerata, Stipa concinna, Festuca spp., Cymbopogon spp., Bothriochloa spp., Desmodium spp. and Agrostis micrantha.

Sub-alpine pasture lands are associated with a variety of shrubs. The common genera are Berberis, Caragana, Hippophae, Juniperus, Lonicera, Potentilla, Rosa, and Spiraea and Rhododendron. In many areas, the shrub Pipthantus nepalensis has heavily invaded productive pasture lands once dominated by Danthonia spp.. The common naturally grown grasses are Elymus spp., Festuca spp., Stipa, Bromus himalaicus Stapf., Chrysopogon gryllus, Cymbopogon schoenanthus, and Koeleria cristata. Elymus nutans, a native species, is of great importance to pastoral systems at high elevations. Forbs of the genera Anaphalis and Potentilla have become more common as Danthonia is removed from the grassland (Miller 1987).

Alpine pasture lands are associated with Rhododendron shrubs. The main types of vegetation, based on the specification of areas, are Kobresia, Cortia depressa, and Carex / Agrostis / Poa associations. Common plant species are Kobresia spp. and Agrostis spp..

5.2 Pasture land productivity & carrying capacity

The total land area under rangelands provides only 36 % of the total feed requirement for livestock in the country (HMG/ADB/ FINNIDA, 1988). The forage production of natural high altitude grazing lands varies from place to place. Estimated dry biomass production from various sites was 0.65 t/ha at Dolpa, 1.53 t/ha at Mustang, 2.36 t/ha at Sindhupalchowk and Dolakha, 3.2 t/ha at Tuten, 3.6 t/ha at Terhathum, 0.79 t/ha at Dhading and 1.5 t/ha at Myagdi. The carrying capacity of the various grasslands, based on their production figures, is given in Table 5.

Table 5. Carrying capacity of different pasture lands

Source : Miller (1987), Rajbhandari and Shah (1981)

Due to enormous grazing pressure, the grasslands have undergone tremendous change. The edible species have been replaced by noxious weeds. Tropical and sub-tropical pasture lands have lost preferred species and are being gradually infested with undesirable species such as Imperata, Eupatorium adenophorum, Cynodon dactylon, Digitaria cruciata, Eragrostis nigra, Paspalum dilitatum and Sporobolus fertilis. In temperate areas, Andropogon tristis is gradually being replaced by Arundinella hookeri, and in the same way, Danthonia schneideri is being replaced by Agrostis inaequiglumis and Agrostis pilosula in sub-alpine pasture lands. However, in steppe pasture land, almost 70 - 80 % of rangelands are covered with dominant shrubs such as Artemisia, Sophora, Lonicera, Ephedra and Caragana. The regeneration of these plant communities is very poor leading to low animal biomass production and severe environment degradation. Very large soil losses from grasslands have been observed at levels from 20 – 50 Mt ha ^-1 (LMP, 1993). The degradation has taken place to such an extent that some once productive grasslands are now rated as waste lands.

Evaluation of exotic species commenced in 1953, and continues at different intensities in various projects. In the High-hills, Mid-hills and Terai, the following forage species have been found promising (Table 6).

Table 6. Potential forage species for different agro-ecological regions

Source: Pariyar et al. (1996)

5.3 Pasture and fodder seed

Over the last 25 years, Nepal has imported substantial quantities of forage seed. Unavailability of high quality seed of fodder and pasture species has directly affected forage improvement activities. Although seed production programmes have been initiated through private seed growers and on government stations, it is estimated that only 50% of the total demand is being fulfilled. The annual demand for forage seed is estimated to be 140 tonnes, however, the total seed production was 70 tonnes in 1994/95 and 85 tonnes in 1995/96. Over 16 types of forage seed are produced of which 46% is in the private sector and 54% on government farms (Table 7).

Table 7. Fodder and pasture seed production during FY 1995/96 in Nepal

Source : Department of Livestock Services (1996)

A large quantity of forage seed is imported from India, particularly from Bihar and Uttar Pradesh States. It is estimated that about 800 - 1000 kg of Avena sativa seed has been imported from India and sold throughout Nepal. These seeds are less expensive than locally produced seed.

6. OPPORTUNITIES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF PASTURE RESOURCES

6.1 Opportunities

• The country has a huge variety of indigenous animal and plant management systems. The rich biodiversity and nature of habitats provides ample opportunities for balanced utilization of existing resources.

• A vast area of about 5.8 M ha of high Himal, high mountain, mid-mountain, Siwaliks and Terai regions could be developed to their optimum potential for animal output while maintaining plant conservation. Almost 2 M ha of 7.8 M ha is non-accessible, particularly in the high hills, high mountain and Siwaliks (Table 8). If these areas could be made accessible, and developed and properly managed, they would provide ample opportunities for resource development.

Table 8. Land suitable for forestry purposes by physiographic zone, Nepal, 1985 – 86 (M ha)

Source : HMG/ADB/FINNIDA (1988)

• Since the 1960's, a large number of plant species of various uses and economic importance have been identified and studied. Plant species in pasture lands include 47 from tropical, 90 from sub-tropical, 87 from temperate, 19 from sub-alpine, and 81 from steppe regions. Protection and proper management of these valuable species will be an important strategy. Similarly, the large numbers of livestock and wildlife are important assets of the country.
• Some research is being done by various institutions in the country, although only in limited areas and on a limited scale. If these methodologies are simplified and implemented through participatory systems, a 50-80 % yield improvement can be obtained from existing resources, thus increasing resource productivity and leading to more sustainable resource management.

• The introduction of exotic plant and animal species, and expansion of use of naturalized exotic species is a further opportunity.

The closure of borders to protect Nepalese herds and flocks has provided opportunity to develop expertise inside the country for a variety of resource development programs.

6.2 Options

The scientific management of biotic resources is necessary to restore soil fertility, encourage regrowth of the medicinal herbs and other grass species, restore balance into ecosystems, provide gainful employment to farmers, and to restore the productivity and beauty of the environment.

The problems of annual burning and over-grazing of pasture lands, and loss of valuable plant resources can be overcome if management policies at institutional, technical and socio-economic levels are appropriate for private, community and public sectors. This gigantic task requires decentralization of development activities to local level institutions in order to mobilize local people and resources for development. Policies for livestock and wildlife production and conservation need to be formulated as a matter of high priority in all agro-ecological zones. Integrated research - development - extension projects should be initiated with support from international and national non-government organizations.

7. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ORGANIZATIONS AND PERSONNEL

The key persons and institutions involved in forage research and development in Nepal are listed below and their addresses are given in Section 9.

Mr. Dinesh Pariyar, Mr. K.K. Shrestha: Pasture & Fodder Research Division (mid-hills). Nepal Agricultural Research Council has the mandate for forage research, seed production, and provides training to officers, junior technicians and farmers.

Mr. J.P. Bajracharya: Department of Livestock Services, Harihar Bhavan. This organization looks after forage development activities throughout the country.

Mr. B.R. Bastola: Agricultural Research Station (high-hills). This station takes responsibility for the conduct of research on temperate forage species and also produces seeds of temperate species.

Mr. Devendra Yadav: Forage Development Farm, Ranjitpur (Terai). This station has the mandate for seed and plant material production. It produces seeds of Avena sativa, Centrosema pubescens and Pueraria phaseoloides.

Mr. S.N. Poudel: Goat Development Farm, Gaughat, Nepalgunj (Terai). This farm produces seeds of Euchlaena mexicana, Avena sativa and Aeschynomene americana.

Mr. D.N. Tiwari: Regional Agriculture Research Centre, Nepalgunj (Terai). This regional centre of NARC produces seed of Euchlaena mexicana, Avena sativa, Aeschynomene americana, Pueraria phaseoloides, Centrosema pubescens, Pennisetum pedicellatum, and Stylosanthes spp..

Mr. D.B.Singh: Livestock Development Farm, Lampatan, Pokhara (Mid-hills). This farm produces seed of Euchlaena mexicana, Avena sativa, Pennisetum pedicellatum and Trifolium alexandrinum.

Mr. K.Karmacharya: Chitlang Sheep Farm, Chitlang (Mid-hills) has undertaken forage seed production of Avena sativa and Paspalum dilatatum.

Mr. Y.N. Sharma: Livestock Development Farm, Jiri (Mid-hills). This farm has potential for temperate seed production and produces seed of Trifolium repens, Lolium perenne, Dactylis glomerata and Avena sativa.

Mr. R.C. Devkota: Livestock Development Farm, Syangbochhe (High-hills), is the only farm which produces seed of native temperate species such as Poa annua and Bromus himalaicus Stapf.

Mr. M.K. Shrestha: Pansayakhola Sheep Development Farm, Valche, Dumbang (Mid-hills), has responsibility for seed production of Dactylis glomerata and Avena sativa.

Mr. J.L.Yadav: Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science (IAAS) Rampur (Terai), conducts educational courses, research and training on forage species.

Mr. B.H. Pandit: Nepal Agroforestry Foundation, (Mid-hills) has responsibility for conducting research and producing seed of forage species and fodder trees. It is capable of providing training on fodder tree species cultivation and management.

8. REFERENCES

9. CONTACTS
 

For ICIMOD information on mountain areas of Nepal and links please click here.

For further information on forages in Nepal contact:

Name, address and the institutions associated with forage improvement

For further information on forages in Nepal contact:

Mr. Dinesh Pariyar, 
Pasture & Fodder Research Division, 
Khumaltar, Post Box 11660, 
Kathmandu, Nepal
E-mail: <Khm@pfrd.wlink.com.np>

This profile was prepared in 1998 and periodic updating will be undertaken by Mr. Dinesh Pariyar.

The profile was edited by H.M. Shelton in 1999 and livestock number and production statistics were updated in November 2002 by S.G. Reynolds.