The Expert Consultation was jointly organised by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific and the Crop and Grassland Service. Thirteen senior rice specialists from Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Viet Nam, IRRI and FAO participated in the meeting.

In the opening session, Mr. P. Nath, Assistant Director-General/Regional Representative for Asia and the Pacific, stressed that rice is not only a major cereal crop in Asia but also a way of life. Increased productivity and sustained production of rice is critical for food and nutritional security in the Region. He pointed out, however, that during the 1990s global rice production, productivity has grown at a much slower rate than the population. He also emphasised that the yield ceiling must be raised and the yield gap narrowed while maintaining a sustainable production and a friendly environment.

The Expert Consultation then proceeded with the presentations of the resource papers, country papers and discussions. The following are its recommendations and conclusions: The Expert Consultation recognised that rice is the staple food for most people in Asia resulting in food security, meaning rice security. Rice production is closely linked with the social harmony and political stability of many developing countries. However, the recent decline in farmers' productivity and profitability are discouraging many farmers from pursuing rice farming.

It is therefore recommended that governments take the appropriate action to improve the rice farmers' productivity and income, while ensuring the national food security. Among the various strategies identified, to achieve the minimum required production growth to raise and sustain the present level of sufficiency in rice, consolidation of the already gained genetic yield is widely recognised as the most practical short-term strategy. This requires precise assessment of the yield gap, identification of key technological, institutional, socio-economic and policy level constraints and finding appropriate remedies.

1. The Expert Consultation recognised the existence of a sizeable yield gap between attainable and farm level yields across ecologies, regions within ecologies, and crop seasons in all rice growing countries in the Asia-Pacific Region.

2. The practical yield gap that can be addressed is the difference between the maximum attainable yield and the farm level yield as defined below:

• Maximum attainable yield: the rice yield of experimental/on-farm plots with no physical, biological and economic constraints and with the best-known management practices at a given time and in a given ecology.

• Farm level yield: the average farmers' yield in a given target area, at a given time, and in a given ecology.

3. The Consultation observed that the yield gap ranges from 10% to 60% between attainable and economically exploitable yields depending on the ecosystems and countries. Adverse environments (rainfed and flood-prone) have the highest yield gaps.

4. The Consultation discussed the various factors currently contributing to the yield gap in different countries. These include biophysical, technical/management, socio-economic, institutional/policy, technology transfer and adoption/linkage problems.

5. Various strategies and/or remedial measures currently being implemented in different countries to bridge the yield gap were also presented and discussed.

6. It was also recognised that only a part of the yield gap could be remedied by the currently available technologies. Policy environment and interventions were considered a very vital component of the strategy to bridge the yield gap. Likewise, technology transfer to farmers and research-extension-farmer linkages play an equally important role.

7. The Consultation recognised that developing new varieties, with higher yield potential and stability, is complementary to bridging the yield gap.

8. The Consultation agreed to develop an action plan to address the yield gap in the Asia-Pacific Region, by developing a regional project, with a focus on the priority constraints prevalent in most of the countries.

9. The Consultation felt that the goodwill and cooperation of governments is essential to initiate an effective yield gap-narrowing regional programme.

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The Consultation identified the following key constraints contributing to the yield gap:

1. Biophysical: climate/weather, soils, water, pest pressure, weeds.

2. Technical/management: tillage, variety/seed selection, water, nutrient, weeds, pests and post-harvest management.

3. Socio-economic: social/economic status, farmers' traditions and knowledge, family size, household income/expenses/investment.

4. Institutional/Policy: government policy, rice price, credit, input supply, land tenure, market, research, development and extension.

5. Technology transfer and linkages: competence and equipment of extension staff, research, development and extension integration, farmers' cognitive blocks, knowledge and skills, weak linkage among public, private and NGO extension staff.

The specific constraints affecting rice productivity in different eco-systems of selected Asian countries were identified as listed below:

Irrigated rice ecosystem (* priority concerns):

* Declining soil productivity and inappropriate/unbalanced nutrient use;

* Increasing severity of pest and disease pressure;

* Poor water management resulting in low water-use efficiency (WUE) and soil salinity/alkalinity problems;

Varietal appropriateness, availability, adoption problems;

Planting time and plant density problems;

Timely availability and quality of inputs (seed, fertilizer, pesticide);

Post-harvest losses;

* Declining profit; and

* Inadequate research and extension support to farmers.

Rainfed lowland ecosystem;

* Low soil fertility and fertilizer use;

Problem soils (salinity, acidity, alkalinity, iron toxicity);

Drought/flood problems;

Inadequate research (lack of location-specific varieties and production technologies);

* Poor weed management;

Timely availability and quality of inputs (seed, fertilizer, pesticide);

Post harvest losses;

* Low profit;

* Inadequate and ineffective extension support to farmers (slow adoption of recommended technologies); and

Poor rural infrastructure.

Upland rice

* Drought;

Very low soil fertility and fertilizer use;

* Weed infestation;

Lack of location-specific varieties (blast resistant and drought tolerant) and production technologies;

* Inadequate research and extension support service; and

* Low profit.

The Expert Consultation recommended the development of a uniform system on a continuous basis to assess the level of the yield gaps and apportion a relative contribution to the various factors to the yield gaps and productivity growth.

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The different countries presented common and unique activities, programmes, and strategies to reduce the yield gaps. The Expert Consultation recognised that, in order to narrow the rice yield gaps, the concerted efforts of all concerned parties, national and international organizations (GO, NGO, PO, IARC, UN agencies) is essential. Sensitisation of policy and decision-makers is an important activity in bridging the yield gaps. The Consultation agreed on the deployment of a holistic and participatory approach to address the yield gap problems. Key points of this strategy are as follows:

• Development of location specific varieties and technologies, i.e. integrated crop management approach like the "Ricecheck System" used in Australia ("Tropical Ricecheck" for targeted areas).
• Incorporation of yield stabilising traits through conventional and innovative approaches (resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses).
• Development and adoption of technologies with a higher yield potential such as hybrid rice, new plant type, etc.
• Intensified technology transfer activities using successful models such as a contiguous demonstration area to promote yield-enhancing technologies, i.e., land preparation, improved variety and seed, pest management, nutrient management, water management, and post harvest management.
• Improve the working relationship and inter-action of research, development and extension organisation.
• Policy intervention to provide incentives to high production, i.e. pricing, credit, input supplies, marketing, etc.

The Consultation agreed to develop a regional project that will focus on major technical and management constraints and improvement of technology transfer and linkages.

The specific institutional and policy interventions, required to complement the effective implementation of the regional project, will be forwarded to the respective governments for consideration and favourable action.