• AvonFRI, Sargodha, Punjab1983
• PD2-LV65FRI, Sargodha, Punjab1983
• Sargodha-81FRI, Sargodha, Punjab1983

• Frontier-87CCRI, Pirsabak, NWFP1988
• Jau-83AARI, Faisalabad, Punjab1985
• Jua-87AARI, Faisalabad, Punjab1988

(iii) Berseem

• AgaitiFRI, Sargodha, Punjab1986
• PachaitiFRI, Sargodha, Punjab1986

(iv) Maize

• AkbarMMRI, Sahiwal, Punjab1972
• AzamCCRI, Prisabak, NWFP1973
• Kisan-90CCRI, Pirsabak, NWFP1990
• SultanMMRI, Sahiwal, Punjab1986
• MazentaFRI, Sargodha, Punjab1991

(MaizexTeosinte)

(v) Millet

• Barani bajraRARI, Bahawalpur, Punjab1986
• Hairy dwarfRARI, Bahawalpur, Punjab1986
• Composite-75RARI, Bahawalpur, Punjab1986
• MB-87FRI, Sargodha, Punjab1991

(vi) Sorghum

• Jowar-86RARI, Bahawalpur, Punjab1986
• BR-307RARI, Bahawalpur, Punjab1986
• BR-319RARI, Bahawalpur, Punjab1986

(vii) Sorghum-Sudan grass Hybrid

• Pak-sudaxFRI, Sargodha. Punjab1986
• SSG-988Pioneer Seed Pvt. Ltd.1992
• RasBheriCargil Seeds Pvt.Ltd1993

A successful dual-purpose crop should provide a substantial amount of forage and recover quickly from defoliation so that a good yield of grain can be obtained. From the literature, it would appear that such a crop for southern Australia should have the following features:

- Semi-prostrate or prostrate growth habit

- Long pre-jointing phase

- Free-tillering habit

- Leaf canopy of relatively prostrate foliage in the early, pre-jointing phase, becoming more erect as stem elongation occurs and new leaves are higher in the canopy.

- Late flowering time i.e. long vegetative phase, flowering time controlled by a relatively strong response to vernalization. A photoperiod response may also be necessary with early sowing of even a strongly vernalizing type to ensure flowering after risk is passed.

These characteristics would allow early sowing, as soon as moisture is available, to take advantage of favourable conditions for photosynthesis in the autumn. Substantial herbage production should be achieved in the early stages of growth and could be safely grazed before flower initiation and stem elongation. If defoliation is not too severe, the type of plant envisaged should retain some leaf after grazing, and should be able to rebuild a canopy and re-tiller as necessary, so that when stem elongation occurs, an adequate number of fertile tillers should be present to ensure a good yield of grain. Because of late flower initiation due to the vernalization requirement, frost damage should be avoided, whilst with only a relatively weak response to photoperiod, flowering and grain production should not be delayed sufficiently for summer moisture stress to be a problem. Whether more than one grazing would be possible would depend on the degree to which various characteristics were expressed in particular cultivars and on environmental conditions and grazing management.

Cattle can be maintained in good condition on oats at a time of the year when the supply of other feed is scare and costly. Many cultivars provide good forage if cut at flowering or soon after. Broad-leaved cultivars produce a higher forage yield, but narrow leaved ones are preferred by horses and cattle. The demand for meat and dairy products is increasing due to the rapid population growth in Pakistan, so improvement of livestock production is urgently needed and quality forage plays a pivotal role. Although 16-19 % of the total cropped area in Pakistan is planted to fodder, animals are generally underfed. To operate an efficient and economical livestock industry, high yielding, nutritious and multi-cut fodder oats are needed to feed more animals (Dost, 1997).

Hussain et al., (1993) reported that ‘Fatua’ oats harvested at various intervals produced more fodder and less crude protein with plant age/advance in crop maturity. The crop should be harvested at a stage that provides an optimum compromise between forage yield and quality. Maximum green fodder and dry matter yields and crude protein contents were recorded when oats was harvested at 50 percent flowering. Hussain et al. (1994) also reported that the highest green and of course dry matter yields of five oat cultivars were at 50 percent heading.

Dost et al. (1994) concluded that forage yield, dry matter yield, and crude fibre increased while seed yield and crude protein declined with advancing maturity. Harvest at 50 percent flowering resulted in superior forage and dry matter yields with inferior nutritive forage value as determined by lower crude protein and higher crude fibre contents, compared to harvesting at the vegetative stage at 70 and 85 days after planting. Minimum forage and dry matter yields with maximum forage quality resulted from harvesting at the mid vegetative stage at 70 and 85 days after planting.Young cereal plants provide excellent quality herbage which is highly nutritious for lactating ewes and young growing lambs. Their digestibility, crude protein content, carotene, mineral and vitamin contents have been reported to decline with plant age, whereas crude fibre and nitrogen free extract increase (Skorda, 1977; Eagles et al., 1979; McDonald and Wilson, 1980). However, yield per unit area of both crude protein and digestible dry matter increase with advancing maturity until the milky stage (Hadjichristodoulou, 1976a & b; Hughes and Haslemore, 1984; Droushiotis and Wilman, 1987).

High quality feed, suitable for growth and lactation, should exceed values of about 67 percent in digestibility and 13 –15 percent in crude protein; less than 65 percent digestibility indicates feed suitable for maintenance only (Raymond, 1969; Hughes and Haslemore, 1984). Whilst Hughes and Haslemore (1984) concluded that if the digestibility of a forage is satisfactory (above 67.5 percent), the protein content will generally also be satisfactory (above 12-15 percent), Raymond (1969) and Eagles et al. (1979) found that decline in digestibility of forage crops (including cereals) led to a reduction in voluntary intake by animals.

Several workers (Lassiter et al. 1958; Zogg et al. 1961) report comparisons of maize and oat silage for milking cows. Both concluded that maize silage was superior to oat silage for milk production. However, in each study the silages were not fed alone and a considerable portion of the dry matter intake was from hay.

Mowat and Slumskie (1971) indicated that maize silage contained more digestible energy than barley silage when fed to finishing steers. The low digestible energy content of barley silage was also demonstrated by Fisher et al. (1972) in a study with dairy cows. Neither report assessed the suitability of the crops in terms of both field yields and feeding value.

Under Tasmanian conditions, Abdul-Rahman et al. (1985) found that very early-sown (4 January) oats still had a digestibility of 60 percent and crude protein content of 14 percent in June, when the crop was close to flowering. It is noteworthy that under the long growing season of high rainfall areas, crops always produce high dry matter digestibility (75-85 percent) in winter (Dann et al., 1977; Eagles et al., 1979). The relationship between digestibility, radiation and temperature has not yet been shown experimentally, but sunny days followed by cool or cold nights should give high levels of soluble carbohydrates (Wheeler, 1981). Whilst lower digestibility values were reported in low rainfall areas, crude protein content at later stages of crop development, by contrast, was higher (Skorda, 1977; Droushiotis and Wilman, 1987). This was attributed to less leaching of soil nitrogen in low rainfall areas (Hadjichristodoulou, 1976).

Although grazing and cutting contribute to delay in flowering, a late flowering characteristic is important in dual-purpose cereals, in many places in high rainfall areas, to avoid the risk of frost damage . Through the findings of many researchers, time from sowing to heading or maturity is a good indicator for the selection of dual-purpose crops. In the high rainfall areas of Punjab, the recommended dual-purpose oat cultivar S-81 was the earliest to mature after heavy grazing/cutting. It was, however, the latest when ungrazed and grown for grain (Dost, 1994). This trait of late maturity in a dual-purpose crop was confirmed by McLeod et al, (1985) with a cutting height in oats of 2 cm. Hadjichristodoulou (1983) and Yau et al., (1987) concluded that dual-purpose lines tended to be later heading than the usual grain types. Furthermore, the time to heading or maturity appeared to be the main factor affecting yields, while tiller number, head number and plant height were less important (Yau et al., 1987). But these authors warned that, although late lines had better recovery to produce high grain and straw yields after simulated grazing, they were not good dual-purpose types since they gave little at the time of defoliation.

The response to early sowing is apparently a valuable criterion of a dual-purpose crop. This advantage in high rainfall areas in Australia may be associated with a response to vernalization (Anon, 1986; Dann et al., 1977; Davidson et al., 1985a), which gives flexibility in sowing time with stability in flowering time. Varieties responding to long days (Davidson et al., 1985b), may show a similar delay in flowering and hence escape damage by water logging and frost.

Johnson and Dann (1984) suggested that further improvement for dual purpose use could come from breeding cultivars with a higher vernalization requirement, permitting flexibility in sowing dates from late summer to mid autumn without risk of frost damage.and it is very important in areas with prolonged freezing temperature especially in the high altitude regions. For many cereal growing areas, however, these cultivars should also be able to flower early in spring (little requirement for long photoperiod), so that grain is produced before the onset of early summer moisture stress.

Stern and Kirby (1979) stated that vernalization, photoperiod and temperature are the most important environmental stimuli on phenological events as they influence tillering, spikelet initiation and development of cereals. It is difficult to separate the effect of these factors on phenological events in cereals.

Many workers in Australia have found that nitrogen fertilization at various levels (ranging from 67 to 180 kg N/ha) increased the forage yield of oats and that this was a good method of overcoming winter feed shortages (Archer, 1969; Blunt and Fisher, 1976; Crofts, 1966a; Wheeler, 1968). A better response to nitrogen was achieved in spring when the temperature rose (Cook and Lovett, 1974).

Leaf area index (L), total living dry weight, stem dry weight and number of tillers were all significantly increased by nitrogen fertilizing of defoliated and non-defoliated oats (Cook, 1971). Mehra et al. (1971) found that fodder yield was positively correlated with plant height, leaf length and leaf width, tiller number, and stem girth.

The number of tillers at the end of stem elongation and the final number of tillers with ears in cereals were reported to be increased by the addition of nitrogen, especially when applied early, thereby increasing yield (Needham and Boyd, 1976; Graham et al., 1983; Garcia del Moral et al., 1984). A nitrogen deficit reduces tillering due to:

By contrast, however, some workers have demonstrated that nitrogen fertilizer neither increased dry matter yield significantly nor compensated for the deleterious effect of clipping on the grain yield of oats and barley. This might be due to one or both of the following reasons:

The Co-ordinated Fodder Research Programme NARC, Islamabad vigorously evaluated 400 introduced cultivars (1970s introductions) throughout Pakistan and selected 20 promising ones based on maximum forage yield, dry matter yield, maturity etc. The 20 selected cultivars were further evaluated in all four provinces in the autumn (rabi) season under a wide variety of soil and climatic conditions to select and recommend the most promising and suitable ones for different areas within diverse agro-ecological regions. The variation in environmental conditions in different agro-ecological regions is well known to plant breeders. Fluctuations in rainfall and temperature are neither consistent nor predictable from year to year or from place to place. Fertility status and soil types also vary throughout the country. Serious losses in forage yields due to drought, disease, and insects are common in many areas.

Pakistan has a long history of selecting and using local oat landraces, and in modern times, especially the last twenty years, breeding and testing of improved cultivars incorporating material from western sources into local fodder programmes has been a continuous process. Year-round fodder production is the most important component in the farming systems and a great deal of research is being carried out in the four provinces of Pakistan as part of a national coordinated fodder research programme. The details are presented below.

Considerable genotype by environment interaction has been noted across latitude, altitude, seasonal sequence, with some cultivars producing significantly better forage yields than others in certain environments and management regimes. So far, this is poorly documented and has only been modestly exploited in Pakistan due to limited local resources. Effectiveness of varietal testing programme is influenced by several factors. These include experimental design, the number of locations, and the number of years used to average variety means. Information is required as to whether forage oat varieties respond differently when planted under diverse environment interactions, and if so, how important such genotype x environment interactions might be in an oat variety evaluation and selection programme.

Horner and Frey (1957) report that dividing the Iowa State into 2, 3, 4 and 5 sub-areas would reduce variety x location interaction effects by 11, 21, 30 and 40 percent respectively and hence increase the efficiencies of the state wide oat performance trials.

Liang et al. (1966) studied genotype x environment interaction in wheat, barley, and oats and recommended dividing Kansas into 3 and 4 areas, for barley and wheat testing, respectively. It was concluded that it was not necessary to divide the state into smaller areas for oat testing.

Dost et. al. (1993) studied the optimum allocation of resources in varietal evaluation for 13 oat genotypes for forage yield at 4 locations for 4 years and suggested that the three provinces under study should be divided into sub-areas on the basis of variation in rainfall, temperature, soil type, and soil fertility in order to minimize genotype x environment interaction for an efficient forage oat evaluation programme (Table 1).

Dost et al. (1993)

To evaluate the importance of genotype x environment interactions, De Pauw et al. (1981) compared three cultivars of wheat, three of oats, and three of barley for four years at five locations in north-western Canada. They concluded that cultivars showed differential responses in specific environments, which can be used to determine areas of cultivar adaptation.

In a study on genotype x environment interaction at twenty-seven locations for five years, in Alberta, Canada, Kibite et al. (1988) suggested the need to divide Alberta into six rainfed and two irrigated areas.

Compared with wheat and barley, the traditional sources of arable green winter fodder in Pakistan, oats provide multiple cuts, tiller profusely and yield more, and are of higher nutritional value. A major reason for this is that the standing oat crop can be harvested progressively, releasing land earlier than normal for follow-up crops or relay cropping. Late in the season, any remaining crop can be cut at the farmer’s discretion and dried as hay. This coincides with optimum soil moisture for land cultivation and planting of the following crop. This also allows small areas or peripheral lines on terraces to be saved for seed production. In many, but not all instances, more recently bred cultivars out-yield older ones (Dost et al. 1994).

Although the utilization of oats as a multi-cut crop is a common practice in Pakistan, relatively little research data are available to aid the farmer in the selection of the best forage harvest schedule for the dual utilization of oats to allow one to obtain high forage yield, grain yield, and good forage quality.

Bhatti et al. (1992) evaluated 13 oat cultivars under a two cut system at NARC, Islamabad during 1985-86 and 1986-87. The results of the study revealed that the cultivars PD2LV65 and S-81 produced 28.05 percent and 26.24 percent more green forage yield and 26.30 percent and 21.93 percent more dry matter yield respectively in two cuttings compared with the control variety. Thus oat cultivars PD2LV65 and S-81 were found suitable for multi-cut systems both under irrigated and rainfed conditions (Table 2).

Means followed by the same letters do not differ significantly at 5 % level of probability.

Bhatti et al. (1992)

In order to obtain early and good yields under small land holdings and severe winter conditions, compatible fodder crops of different types might be planted in mixture to produce high fodder yields and forage quality per unit area per season (Table 3). The leguminous dwarf fodders like berseem/vetch can be mixed with tall growing fodder like oats, rye grass, brassica etc.

Oat + vetch and barley + vetch combinations produced on average 110 and 70 tons/ha of green material compared with 100 and 56 tons/ha pure oat and barley stands respectively within the 1400 to 2000 m altitude band (Table 3).

Also a deep-rooted crop like Lucerne can be mixed with shallow rooted crops like oats, rye, barley or brassica. The annual fodder is usually planted in the space between the rows of perennial odder. This technology has been practically demonstrated to the farmers of the Northern Areas. There are many advantages of mixed planting over sole planting:

Oats were inter-cropped in winter active Lucerne and red clover planted in rows spaced at 30 cm apart at a number of locations. The mixture of Lucerne + oats, red clover +oats, and berseem + oats produced maximum green and dry matter yields as compared to the sole crops of either legume. The results are presented in Table 4.

Using oat + berseem mixtures provided early and more fodder yields, increased milk production by 20 litres per animal per month on average, compared with traditional practices. At the same time, the demand for purchased concentrates was reduced by 20 kg/month per animal and milk production was extended by an extra two months (Table 4).

To overcome the problems of fodder shortages due to limited land holdings and also to obtain maximum fodder per unit area per season, multiple cropping/ mixed planting techniques were tried. The details are presented below.

Non-winter-dormant Lucerne cultivars (Sundar being the main one), introduced by the FAO project PAK/86/027, Gilgit, have been very successful (Table 5). In some cases they may suffer some frost damage at high altitudes, but they grow throughout the year and yield more than twice as much as the landraces in the low altitude double crop areas 2000 m and below. The new cultivars also provided maximum green feed in the critical December-January period when traditional crops are usually dormant and the area experiences a fodder deficit period.

Pendleton (1957) reported that oats seeded at a low rate in 32 inch rows as a sole crop returned 190 bushels for each bushel seeded, compared to the 42 bushel return from a regular seeded 8 inch row spacing inter-seeded with clover. Also red clover inter-seeding reduced spring oat grain yields but increased the test weight. Reductions in oat yields due to the presence of clover increased as oat row width increased. The yields were reduced 7, 10, 14, and 18 percent respectively for the 8, 16, 24, and 32 inch row spacing. Reduced yields of oats were attributable to the companion clover and were 17 percent in 1954, 7 percent in 1955, and 12 percent in 1956.

In feeding ruminants the nutritive value of the roughage is important from the economical production viewpoint of meat and milk, the formulation of rations, the feeding and management of animals on pasture or on other forage systems for maximum meat and milk production, and accurate interpretation of performance records of animals fed rations containing large amounts of forage. The use of roughage as a feed for ruminants depends on the age of the animal and the purpose for which it is fed, the amount of roughage consumed, and its chemical composition, digestibility, balance of nutrients, and economy.

It has long been recognised that the stage of maturity at which a plant is harvested is one of the most important factors influencing its chemical composition and nutritive value.

Extensive reviews on the importance of roughage quality in ruminant rations have been made by Huffman (1939, 1953), Reid et al. (1959), Van Riper and Smith (1959), Sullivan and Garber (1947) and Stallcup et al. (1956) have reviewed the literature on the influences of the stage of maturity on the nutritive value of certain plants.

Newman (1894) studied the influence of stage of maturity of rye on the chemical composition of the plant under Arkansas conditions. In the period from the boot to the blossom stage, crude protein decreased and crude fibre increased. Rosen et al. (1953) studied the crude protein of oat forage from November through March. Early growth in the autumn was much higher in protein than were later clippings.

Thurman et al. (1957) have reported on the chemical composition of the oat plant from April through June. In general, crude fibre increased with advancing maturity and protein was reduced. Digestion trials were conducted on silages harvested at the boot, milk, and hard dough stages of maturity. The total digestible nutrients decreased from 71.3 to 58.8 percent from the boot to hard dough stages. Stallcup (1958) published a preliminary report on the change in composition of some forage plants at different stages of maturity.

The apparent influence of ash and the buffering capacity of plants on rumen pH has been reviewed by Cason et al. (1954). The influence of lignin on digestibility has been reviewed and data on some forages have been published by Stallcup et al. (1956). The composition of crude fibre in several forage plants has been shown to vary widely by Stallcup (1958). Meyer et al. (1957) made detailed studies of the changes in composition and nutritional value of oat forage with stage of maturity under California conditions. Austenson and Law (1958) undertook an extensive review of literature pertaining to the effect of fertilizer on chemical composition of pasture herbage.

Little information is available in Pakistan on forage yield and quality in oats, barley, and wheat crops harvested at various stages of maturity. Studies were thus carried out to determine an ideal maturity/harvesting stage to obtain a compromise between maximum forage yield and a reasonably good forage quality.

Hussain et al. (1998) evaluated oats, barley, and wheat for forage yield and quality at nine maturity stages at NARC, Islamabad during 1990 –1992. It was observed that oats harvested at head emergence stage, and barley and wheat at 100 percent flowering stage produced maximum green forage yields. In all three crops the highest dry matter yield was recorded at early dough stage. The maximum crude protein content was recorded at 4-leaf harvesting stage repeatedly, whereas the minimum protein contents were recorded in the early dough stage. Oats, barley, and wheat harvested at boot stage provided a good compromise of green fodder yield, dry matter yield, and forage quality. At this stage a sufficient quantity of fodder with moderate forage quality was obtained (Table 6). Recent work on oats is reported by Hussain et al. (2001).

Hussain et al 1998.

CS 1 = Repeated cuttings at 4-leaf, CS 2 = Repeated cuttings at tillering

CS 3 = Repeated cuttings at jointing, CS 4 = Repeated cuttings at boot

CS 5 = Harvesting once at head emergence, CS 6 = Harvesting once at 50 percent flowering

CS 7 = Harvesting once at 100 percent flowering, CS 8 = Harvesting once at early milk

CS 9 = Harvesting once at early dough

Hussain et al (1995) conducted trials during 1990 and 1991 to evaluate yield and quality of fodder at different harvesting stages on oats and barley (Table 7). It was concluded that oats harvested at booting stage and barley at 100 percent flowering stage produced maximum forage yield (79.45 and 63.10 tons/ha respectively). In oat and barley crops, the highest dry matter yield (15.54 and 13.75 tons/ha) respectively was recorded at early dough stage. In both the crops crude protein contents decreased with the advance in crop maturity. The maximum crude protein content (14.93 and 14.37 percent) in oats and barley respectively was observed when the crops were harvested repeatedly at the 4-leaf stages, whereas the minimum was at the early dough stage in both crops. Oats and barley harvested at booting stage proved better for reasonable forage yield (67.32 tons / ha), dry matter yields (11.66 tons/ha) and forage quality (crude protein 10.33 percent). At this stage a sufficient quantity of forage yield with moderate quality was obtained in both crops (Table 7).

Table 7. Green fodder and dry matter yields and crude protein of oat and barely as affected by cutting at different stages

* Data for one year

Hussain et al 1995

CS1= Repeated cutting at 4-leaf; CS2= Tillering;

CS3= Jointing CS4= Booting stage;

CS5= Harvest once at ear emergence; CS6= 50 percent flowering;

CS7= 100 percent flowering; CS8= Early milk

CS9= Early dough stage.

Lawes and Jones (1970) investigated the ensiling characteristics of barley, wheat, and oats crops cut at two different dates and reported that dry matter yields increased until the end of July. Digestibility and crude protein content declined until mid July when values of 56-60 and 6-7 percent for the barley and wheat and 53-55 and 5-6 percent for the oats respectively were maintained. Crops of all varieties were suitable for ensiling at maximum yield.

Brundage and Sweetman (1967) have recommended that oat/pea forage be harvested in the late milk stages of oat maturity to take advantage of higher yields of lower moisture silage. Bolsen et al. (1976) and Polan et al. (1968) recommended harvesting small grain forages at the dough stages of maturity. Comparing oat forage ensiled at the boot, early milk, and soft dough stages of maturity, Martz et al. (1959) recommended harvesting at the boot stage or soon thereafter.

Seed production is a major problem with the majority of forage crops as most of them are harvested and fed to livestock well before seed formation, unless intentionally kept for seed. Therefore, development and cultivation of dual purpose forage crops varieties could be one of the best options/solutions for seed production and availability. The most common cereal grown as a dual-purpose (harvesting/grazing plus grain) crop in Pakistan is oats.

Dost et al. (1994) evaluated oat cultivar S-81 under different maturity/ harvesting treatments during 1991-92 at NARC, Islamabad (Table 8). It was reported that forage yield, dry matter yield, and crude fibre increased while seed yield and crude protein declined by harvesting the crop with advances in maturity. Maximum forage and dry matter yields with considerably inferior quality forage (as determined by lower crude protein and higher crude fibre values) were observed at 50 percent flowering stage. Minimum forage and dry matter yields with superior quality forage were recorded in the crop harvested at 70 and 85 days after planting. The results of this research also indicated that it is possible to have a satisfactory forage yield, forage quality and grain yield from oats crop that has already been harvested once for forage at 115 days after planting.

Tilt (1965) reported that skilled grazing management of dual-purpose oats has a big effect on ultimate grain yield. Early sown oats can be grazed from the end of April through to August when they are either ploughed under or "shut up for grain". The later the grazing continues, the more the grain yield is likely to be depressed. In 1964, a plant breeding programme to develop a dual-purpose variety adapted to Tasmanian conditions was initiated by the Department of Agriculture and resulted in the release of "Esk" in 1975 for all Tasmanian areas (Vertigan 1975). "Esk" is now the most common oat variety in Tasmania, and is normally sown between February and April. It is used for winter grazing by sheep and, depending on the farmer’s requirement for stored (conserved) feed, may be harvested for hay or grain. It is late maturing, resistant to most diseases and to grain shedding (Vertigan, 1975).

Smith (1960) found that the analysis of oat forage indicated that the percentages of protein, fat, ash, P, Ca, K, and nitrate declined from early growth to maturity while the percentage of fibre increased until the heads were emerging from the boot, and then decreased. The yields per acre of dry matter and of protein, ash, P, and Ca, constituents important to animal nutrition, increased steadily to a stage of growth when the seeds were nearly ripe and then decreased. However, a high proportion of the total yield per acre of protein, ash, P, and Ca was produced at early dough, the stage of growth often indicated as the best stage to harvest for hay or silage.

Forage stand losses resulting principally from lodging of oats and volunteer growths from shattered seed have promoted widespread interest in the harvesting of oats at immature stages of growth as pasture, silage, or hay. Chemical analyses (Berry 1920, Fagan and Watkin 1931, Keitt and Tarbox. 1912, Meyer et al. 1957, Nicholson 1957, Smith and Ross 1943, Sotola 1937, Thurman et al. 1957, Underwood and Moir 1944) and limited feeding trials (Meyer et al. 1957, Sotola 1937) have shown that oats at immature stages of growth can provide nutritious and high quality forage. The most complete studies of the changes in composition of oats from early to late stages of growth have been made by Berry (1920) in Scotland and by Sotola (1937) in the state of Washington, USA. However, many of the analytical studies have been made at only the more advanced stages of growth (Fagan and Watkin 1931, Keitt and Tarbox 1912, Nicholson 1957, Thurman et al. 1957, Underwood and Moir 1944) or have been made for only a few chemical constituents (Henderson and Davis 1955, Meyer et al. 1957, Smith and Ross 1943).

Several investigations have shown that grazing or clipping of small grain stands can provide, in addition to grain, high quality forage and reduced lodging. However, clipping frequently decreased subsequent grain yields (Gardner and Wiggins, 1960, Crowder 1953, Cutler et al. 1949, Thakur and Shands 1954, Washko 1947, Welton and Morris 1931, Westrate and Grafius 1958). The effects obtained have varied with the soil and climatic conditions (Cutler et al. 1949, Sprague 1954), nitrogen fertilization (Morris and Gardner 1958), and with the date of clipping.

In Saudi Arabia, Farnworth and Williams (1977) planted oats, barley, and wheat crops for two cuts for forage followed by grain. The first cut for forage was obtained at a stubble length above ground of 2.5 cm and 12.5 cm. Oats produced the highest forage yields but lowest grain yields while wheat produced highest grain yields. Similarly oats produced higher yields of straw. It was also found that oats had higher protein, fibre, and ash levels than barley or wheat but lower carbohydrate levels. Barley had the lowest protein level and wheat the lowest fibre and ash levels.

Application of different doses of nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizer produced substantially higher yields (at the five locations in Pakistan indicated in Table 9) than using no fertilizer or farm yard manure alone, especially on seriously depleted soils, which had been mono-cropped for many years with wheat/maize/ barley etc. Maximum forage yields were obtained through application of 150-75 N P kg/ha. at most of the locations under trial and was followed by 150-25 N P kg/ha (Table 9). However, increased usage of chemical fertilizer could not realistically be justified in many instances for economic and environmental reasons (Table 9).

In India, Taneja et al. (1981) found that with the application of 120 kg N/ha to the oats and barley crops, the green fodder and dry matter yields increased significantly. For seed yields, however, the significant response was observed up to 80 kg N/ha. Also the application of 80 kg N/ha provided the maximum net profit of Rs. 4022.30/ha.

Available nitrogen is usually the limiting factor in dry matter production of winter forage (Crofts, 1966b), and oats and other small grain cereals have shown considerable increase in forage and grain yield due to nitrogen fertilization after grazing. The response will vary according to the temperature, soil type, soil fertility level, rotation system, irrigation, cultivar, date of sowing, time of nitrogen application and other environmental factors.

In USA, Ohm (1976) recommended that more extensive testing of potential new cultivars be undertaken to determine specific fertility x cultivar interactions. It was found that application of nitrogen resulted in significant increases in plant height, lodging score, percent protein, and yield in oat cultivars; it did not affect heading date or seed weight; and it reduced test weight. Short-strawed types increased in plant height more with nitrogen application than several taller cultivars although plant height increases were greatest for other tall types. Lodging scores of weaker-strawed cultivars did not always increase more with nitrogen application than those of stronger-strawed cultivars. Percent protein in certain low protein cultivars increased more than that of some high protein cultivars with fertilizer nitrogen. A given cultivar may not respond similarly to nitrogen in terms of percent protein and/or yield. More extensive testing of potential new cultivars to determine specific fertility x cultivar interactions was recommended.

In Australia, autumn sown oats has shown a large response in forage yield to nitrogen fertilization and irrigation, with economic benefits in reducing the winter-feed shortage (Crofts, 1966a, 1966b; Brown, 1975). Blackman (1936) showed that nitrogen can increase the growth rate of grasses when soil temperature at 10 cm is in the range of 5 -8 ⁰C, as the slow release by ba