Contents

Foreword

Acknowledgements

Main Contributors – contact details

Abbreviations and Acronyms

Section 1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 1 Fodder Production and Double cropping

Ian Lane

1.1.

Background

1.2.

Factors that result in successful adoption of new technology

1.3.

Opportunities to develop fodder production and double cropping

1.4.

Analysis of Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Constraints

1.5.

Potential benefits

Annexes

1.1.1.

Models for Crop-dominated farming systems <3650m altitude in central region of Tibet - Current single cropping system

1.1.2.

Models for Crop-dominated farming systems <3650m altitude in central region of Tibet - Improved Double Cropping system

1.2.

SWOC analysis for the current single cropping system in the lower valleys of Central Tibet

Section 2 CROP PRODUCTION AND TILLAGE METHODS

Chapter 2 Wheat and Barley Phenological development and Environmental constraints in Tibet

Helena Gómez MacPherson

2.1.

Introduction

2.2.

Crop growth and development

2.3.

The Zadoks decimal growth stages

2.4.

Problem identification

2.5.

Wheat field sheets. A guide to recording observations

2.6

Irrigation timing and moisture stress

Chapter 3 Land Preparation and Crop Establishment

Peter Hobbs

3.1.

Introduction

3.2.

Minimum Tillage methods

3.3.

Crop Residues

3.4.

Crop establishment

3.5.

Tillage and crop establishment issues for double cropping cereals and fodder crops

Chapter 4 Mineral nutrition Requirements and Constraints for Wheat and Barley in Tibet

Helena Gómez MacPherson and Peter Hobbs

4.1.

Mineral nutrition

4.2.

Is mineral nutrition a problem?

4.3.

What to do about nutrient problems

4.4.

What is mineral fertiliser?

Chapter 5 Integrated Weed Management and Weed Constraints for Wheat and Barley in Tibet

Peter Hobbs

5.1.

Introduction

5.2.

Herbicides

5.3.

Herbicides available in Lhasa

5.4.

Herbicide application

5.5.

Common weeds species in central Tibet

5.6.

Integrated weed control in double cropping systems

Chapter 6 Seeders for 2 and 4-Wheel Tractors

Chapter 6A 2BG-6A Rotary Seed Drill for the Dongfeng Two Wheel Tractor

Peter Hobbs

6A.1.

Introduction

6A.2.

Construction of the Seed drill

6A.3.

Installing the rotary blades

6A.4.

Mounting the seed drill to the 2-wheel tractor

6A.5.

Adjustments to the seed drill

6A.6.

Calibrating the quantity of seed delivered by the drill

6A.7.

Preparations before seed drilling

6A.8.

Operating notes

6A.9.

Seed drill storage

6A.10.

Troubleshooting

6A.11.

Parts List

6A.12

Main Technical Specifications

Chapter 6B The Zero-Till Drill (2BMF-6C-2) for 4-Wheel Tractors

Peter Hobbs

6B.1.

Construction

6B.2.

Calibration of seed and fertilizer rates.

6B.3.

Planting

6B.4.

Maintenance of the Zero-Till Drill.

Section 3 FODDER PRODUCTION, CONSERVATION & FEEDING

Chapter 7 Fodder Crop Options

Ian Lane

7.1.

Options for Fodder Crops

7.2.

Annual Forage Legumes

 7.2.1. Common vetch (Vicia sativa L.)

7.2.2. Hairy Vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.).

7.2.3. Forage Peas (Pisum sativum arvense L. / Pisum sativum L. (partim)).

7.2.4. Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) = Local Legume "Xuisha"

7.3.

Biennial / Perennial Forage Legumes

7.3.1. Lucerne (Medicago sativa L. / Medicago falcata and hybrids)

7.3.2. Melilotus (Sweetclovers) (Melilotus spp)

7.3.3. Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia Scop.)

 7.3.4. Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.)

7.4.

Vegetable and / or Pulse Legumes

7.4.1. Peas (Green peas in pod) (Pisum sativum L.), Peas (Pulse crop for grain) (Pisum sativum L.) Peas (Edible pods) (Pisum sativum axiphium)

7.4.2. "Broad" or "Faba" Beans (Vicia faba)

7.4.3. Bush Beans (Green pods) (Phaseolus vulgaris), Bush Beans (Pulse crop) (Phaseolus vulgaris), and Runner Beans (Phaseolus coccineus)

7.5.

Root and Leafy Brassicas

 7.5.1. Root crops: Sugar and Fodder Beet (Beta vulgaris L.); Turnips (Brassica rapa L. var rapa); Carrots (Daucus carota subsp. sativa); and Radish (Raphanus sativus)

7.5.2. Leafy Brassicas: Fodder Kale (Brassica oleraca L. convar. acaphala (DC.) Alef. var medullosa), Cabbage (Brassica oleraca capitata), Forage Rape (Brassica napus L. (partim)), Fodder Radish (Brassica sp.)

7.5.3. Rapeseed / Oil Seed Rape (Brassica napus, and Brassica rapa syn B. campestris)

7.6.

Cereals and Annual / Biennial Grasses

7.6.1. Annual / Biennial Grasses:  Westerwold Ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum Lam. var. Westerwoldicum) and Italian Ryegrass (Lolium italicum)

7.6.2. Small-grained cereals:  Barley (Hordeum sp.); Oats (Avena sativa); Rye (Secale cereale); Triticale (Triticum aestivum x Secale cereale); Wheat (Triticum aestivum)

7.6.3. Maize (Zea mays)

7.7.

Minor crops

7.7.1. Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum)

7.7.2. Amaranthus (Grain and Fodder) (Amaranthus hypochondriachus, Amaranthus cruentis, Amaranthus caudatus)

7.7.3. Sunflowers (Helianthus annus)

Chapter 8  Nitrogen Fixation in Forage Legumes

Ian Lane

8.1.

Introduction

8.2.

Specificity

8.3.

Nodulation

8.4.

Seed inoculation and field to field transfer of rhizobia

8.5.

The Process of Nitrogen Fixation

8.6.

Amounts of N₂ fixed

Chapter 9 Fodder Conservation

Ian Lane

9.1.

Introduction

9.2.

Making Silage in Plastic Barrels (Barrel Silage)

9.3.

Fences, Tripods and A-frames for drying heavy crops of fodder legumes.

9.4.

Fractionation of legume fodders into leaf and stem

Chapter 10 Feeding of Fodder Crops

Ian Lane

10.1.

Introduction

10.2.

Feeding Value

10.2.1. Voluntary Feed Intake (Dry Matter Intake, Appetite)

10.2.2. Digestion

10.3.

Feed composition and nutritive value of fodders and feeds available in central Tibet

10.4.

Feeding systems and models

10.4.1. Improvement of fodder quality

10.4.2. Supplementation of cereal straws.

 10.4.3. Estimation of nutrient requirements and ration formulation to meet those requirements

10.4.4. The relationship between conserved fodder quality and the ‘Fodder to Concentrate Ratio’ in the diet of milking cows

Section 4 ECONOMICS

Ian Lane

11.1.

Introduction

11.2.

Economics of zero-till drilling for crop production

11.2.1. Spring barley

11.2.2. Winter wheat

11.3.

Economics of double cropping winter barley and turnips

11.4.

Determining the economic value of fodders and feeds

11.5.

Economic responses for models on fodder quality and feeding systems

11.5.1. Improvement of fodder quality

11.5.2. Supplementation of cereal straws

Foreword

Having achieved regional sufficiency in grain production in line with national guidelines, the Government of the Tibet Autonomous Region is keen to boost meat and milk supplies. The lack of quality fodder, especially during winter, is a major limiting factor in improving livestock production. In order to sustain food grain production while increasing fodder production, there is urgent need to increase the utilization rate in the limited arable land areas below 3650m altitude where there is a potential growing period of 2 - 3 months for second crops (and double cropping systems) in the period July-October. These second crops can be purely for fodder or produce a product for market as well as good quality fodder. Adjusting cropping systems to make full use of the growing season is low cost and will allow farmers to increase their income with relatively modest inputs.

At the request of the Government of the People’s Republic of China, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) projects TCP/CPR/2907-3101 "Fodder Production and Double Cropping in Tibet" have been implemented in the period 2004-2006 with the objectives of developing and demonstrating double cropping technologies, training researchers, extension staff and farmers in these technologies and formulating a Medium-Term Programme for dissemination of the technologies throughout the region. The area of focus has been in the lower and middle reaches of the Yalong Tsangpo River and the middle reaches of the Lhasa River and the Government Implementing Agency has been the Tibet Agricultural Research Institute (TARI).

This manual is one of the major outputs of the projects, summarizing up-to-date information with locally collected data on aspects of cereal production, new fodder crops, cropping systems, zero-tillage, various aspects of fodder production and conservation, animal nutrition of local and improved milking cows, and the economics of double cropping and feeding of high quality fodder crops to milk cows. It provides a large body of information and excellent illustrations which will be of lasting benefit for researchers and extension workers and from which material can be extracted for other specific and targeted publications for farmers.

Dr. Stephen Reynolds
former Senior Officer (and now consultant), Grassland and Pasture Crops Group, Crop and Grassland Service, Food and Agriculture Organization and the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

December 2006

Acknowledgements

The authors give thanks to everyone they have worked with over the course of this project, including the farmers at village level, village leaders, and all staff of township and county agricultural and animal husbandry bureaux, the Department of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry,  staff of TARI, TLRI and TAAAS, and all other institutions and projects.  The materials included in this manual have been selected and developed specifically in relation to double cropping for fodder production in central Tibet, with possibilities for broader application throughout crop lands of the region. This has only been possible through the close cooperation, insight and guidance of the above people, which has continued throughout the project including the intense debates and participation of many and varied participants at the Final Workshop. 

Special thanks are given to Dr. Nyima Tashi, Vice-President of TAAAS and National Project Co-ordinator for guiding preparation of the Manual from the beginning of the project. A number of versions have been discussed, and he has been instrumental in setting both the level and the scope of individual chapters, both through direct review of earlier versions, and through discussions on the future of agriculture and animal husbandry within crop production zones. Mr. Jin Tao and staff of the Division of Cultivation Biology including Sang Bu, Liu Guoyi, Biaba Zhuoma, Ci Yang and Song Guoying have worked closely with the authors throughout the project, and many of the outputs of station trials and field extension have been incorporated. Mr. Liu Guoyi receives special thanks for translating chapters of the Manual for the Workshop, with positive feedback. Many staff of TARI have worked closely with the authors, and are thanked for their contributions and ideas.

Although it has not been possible to work so closely with staff of the Tibet Livestock Research Institute due to their training and work commitments, thanks are due to Dr. Qiumei Ji, Dr. Tsam Yu, Ms La Ba and Ms Da Wa Yang La for detailed discussions on both fodder production in Tibet and on aspects of ruminant nutrition as they affect milk production from both local and improved cows. It is their interest that has inspired extra detail in the chapter on the feeding of fodder crops.

Special thanks are also due to staff of projects that have operated alongside this TCP, who have been most willing to share their insights and experience with various authors. This includes staff of the ACIAR forage legume inter-cropping project, especially Nick Paltridge, who helped guide project staff in their work. Ms Lynda Nicholls of the CIDA rural and agricultural project has been the inspiration for participatory approaches, as she set out at the Final Workshop and are reflected in the introduction to the Manual. Dr. Karl Kaiser and staff of the EU Panam project, now finished, provided valuable insights to the cropping and farming systems in valleys at higher elevation, and this has led on to continuing work with farmers on zero-tillage. This is reflected throughout the manual, including the economic analysis for growing spring barley.

The national consultants are thanked for their ongoing involvement in the project despite severe time constraints. This has resulted in the authors having a much deeper understanding of the local situation in Tibet, and China as a whole, than would otherwise be the case. Thanks are due to Mr. Liao Chongguang for managing funding of the manual, and the final translation.  The lead authors have acknowledged contributions made directly from their previous colleagues, and the published sources they have used.  Lengthy discussions have been held with numerous persons during the preparation of this manual. Finally the lead authors would like to thank Dr. Steve Reynolds, former AGPC officer, and Caterina Batello, Agricultural Officer AGPC, for their continuous involvement and support in discussion of possible content, development of written materials, and assistance with editing.

Main Contributors – contact details

Ian R. Lane
Ian Lane Associates
Lower Kenfield Cottage
Petham
Canterbury
CT4 5RN
United Kingdom
email: ianlaneuk@aol.com

Helena Gómez Macpherson
Instituto de Agricultura Sostenible – CSIC
Alameda del Obispo s/n
14080 Cordoba
Spain
email: hgomez@cica.es

#

number

%

percent

+

the plus sign when used as a mathematical expression; for temperature, above zero

-

the minus sign when used as a mathematical expression

-

in tables, used to denote missing values, or ‘not applicable’

x or *

the multiplication sign when used as a mathematical expression

/ or ÷

the division sign when used as a mathematical expression

±

the plus or minus sign

=

the equals sign

≡

equivalent to

<

less than

>

greater than

Ö, (Ö)

Correct, good, desirable; in brackets - less correct, not so good, less desirable

^‘o’

degree – for example as the number of degrees in a circle

^oC

degrees of temperature: degrees centigrade or degrees Celsius

0-Till

Zero-Till drilling; Zero Tillage

2,4-D

A selective post-emergence herbicide to control broadleaved weeds in cereals

A, a

a.i.

active ingredient, for agrochemicals

ACIAR

Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research

ADAS

UK Agricultural Development and Advisory Service

ADF

Acid Detergent Fibre

ADIN

Acid Detergent Insoluble Nitrogen

ADIP

Acid Detergent Insoluble Protein

ADL

Acid Detergent Lignin

AFRC

Agriculture and Food Research Council

am.

ante-meridian = before midday = in the morning

AN

Ammonium Nitrate fertiliser

APL

Animal Production Level

B, b

bar

unit of pressure: 1 bar = 1 atmosphere

Bo

Boron

BOD

Biological Oxygen Demand

C, c

C

Carbon

C

Concentrate feed dry matter

C3, C4

Photosynthetic pathways

CA

Conservation Agriculture

Ca

Calcium

CAAMS

Chinese Academy of Agricultural Mechanisation Sciences, in Beijing

CCC

Canola Council of Canada

CDM

Corrected Dry Matter, in silage

CF

Correction Factor, usually as a proportion in estimation of DMI

CF

Crude Fibre

CIDA

Canadian International Development Agency

Cl

Chlorine

cm

centimetres : 1 cm = 1/100 m; 100 cm = 1 m

Co

Cobalt

CO₂

Carbon dioxide

CP

Crude Protein (equals N x 6.25)

Cu

Copper

D, d

DAP

Di-ammonium Phosphate fertiliser

DC

Double Crop or Double Cropping

DCF

Digestible Crude Fibre

DCP

Digestible Crude Protein

DE

Digestible Energy

DEE

Digestible Ether Extract

Defra

UK Department of Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs

DM

Dry Matter

DMD

Dry Matter Digestibility

DMI

Dry Matter Intake

DMTP

Digestible Microbial True Protein

DNFE

Digestible Nitrogen Free Extract

DOMD

Digestible Organic Matter in the Dry matter, expressed as g/kg DM

DQ

Dongqing varieties, such as Dongqing #1 winter barley

DUP

Digestible Undegraded feed Protein

D-value

Digestible Organic Matter in the Dry matter, expressed as a percentage

E, e

EE

Ether Extract

epNDF

Effective Neutral Detergent Fibre

ERDP

Effective Rumen Degradable Protein

et al

and other authors, or other workers

etc

etcetera = and so on

ET

Evapo-transpiration

EU

European Union

F, f

F1

First cross, as in breeding cows

FAO

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Fe

Iron

Fm

Feimai variety of winter wheat

FME

Fermentable Metabolisable Energy

G, g

g

gram

GE

Gross Energy

GoTAR

Government of the Tibet Autonomous Region

H, h

H

Hydrogen

H

Height

H.Y.

High Yielding varieties

ha

hectare (1 ha = 15 mu)

HP

Horse Power – used for rating the power of tractors and other machinery = 0.746 kW

I, i

i.e.

that is

IFI

International Feedstuffs Institute, Utah State University

in sacco

nylon (Dacron) bag digestibility or degradation

in situ

nylon (Dacron) bag digestibility or degradation; literally in place within the animal

in vitro

in the laboratory, literally ‘in glassware’

in vivo

in the live animal

J, j

jin

Local unit of weight: 1 jin = 0.5 kg;  1.0kg = 2 jin

K, k

K

Potassium. In NPK fertilisers applied as Potash, K₂O

k

the efficiency of conversion of metabolisable energy to net energy

K₂O

Potash, in fertiliser

KFN

Kilogram of Fertiliser Needed

kg

kilogram = 1000 grams

kg/ha

kilogram per hectare

k_n

the efficiency of conversion of metabolisable protein to net protein

KNN

Kilogram of Nutrient Needed

kW

kilo Watt – as a measure of power – 1 kW = 1.341 HP

L, l

L

Leaf

l

litre or liter

Log_e

Natural logarithm

Ltd

Limited, as in limited company

LW

Liveweight

M, m

m

metre or meter

m.a.s.l.

metres above sea level

M/D

Concentration of Metabolisable energy  in the Dry matter, as MJ ME / kg DM

m²

square metre

MADF

Modified Acid Detergent Fibre

MAFF

UK Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food

MCP

Microbial Crude Protein

ME

Metabolisable Energy

Mg

Magnesium

MJ

Megajoules = one million joules of energy

mm

millimetre: 1000 mm = 1 m

Mn

Manganese

Mo

Molybdenum

MOP

Muriate of Potash - fertiliser

MP

Metabolisable Protein

MS

Main Stem

mu

local unit for land area (1 mu = 1/15 ha). Some counties use a “large mu” = 2 mu.

N, n

N

Nitrogen, in animal feeds and in soil nutrients and fertilisers

N

Node of a cereal plant

n

number, the position in a series such as week n of lactation

N/A, n/a

Not Applicable, or Not Available

N₂

di-nitrogen molecules

Na

Sodium

NAEF

National Agricultural Engineering Federation

NCD

Neutral detergent Cellulase Digestibility

NCDG

Neutral detergent Cellulase + Gammanase Digestibility

NDF

Neutral Detergent Fibre

NE

Net Energy

NFE

Nitrogen Free Extract

NH₃N

Ammonia nitrogen

No., no., N^o

number

NP

Net Protein

NPK

Nitrogen / Phosphorous / Potassium plant nutrients, as used in fertilisers

NPN

Non-Protein Nitrogen

O, o

O, O₂

Oxygen

ODM

Oven Dry Matter

OM

Organic Matter

OMD

Organic Matter Digestibility

P, p

P

Phosphorous. In NPK fertilisers applied as Phosphate, P₂O₅

P₂O₅

Phosphate, in fertiliser

PGRO

Pea Growers Research Organisation

pH

logarithmic scale of acidity/alkalinity

pm.

post-meridian = after midday = in the afternoon or evening

PNIF

Percentage Nutrient in Fertiliser

Point dg

Point degradability

popn

population

Pre-

A prefix that means “before”

psi

pounds per square inch - pressure

Q, q

q

the metabolisability of the ration, defined as ME/GE

QDP

Quickly Degradable Protein

R, r

r², R²

coefficient of determination = proportion of total variation accounted for by a relationship

RDP

Rumen Degradable Protein

RPM, rpm

Revolutions Per Minute

RRS

Rumen Resistant Starch

RS

Rapeseed

RSM

Rapeseed Meal

RUMNUT

Ruminant Nutrition software

S, s

S

Sulphur, Sulfur

SB

Spring Barley

SC

Second Crop

SD, S.D.

Short Duration varieties

SDP

Slowly Degradable Protein

sec

second, as in time: 60 seconds = 1 minute;  as in metres per second

SEU

Sheep Equivalent Units (1 mature sheep of 30kg requires approximately 200 kg TDN per year)

Si

Silicon

SW

Spring Wheat

SWOC

Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Constraints (analysis used in participatory approaches)

T, t

T

Tiller

TA

Total Ash

TAAAS

Tibet Academy of Agriculture and Animal husbandry Sciences

TAR

Tibet Autonomous Region

TARI

Tibet Agricultural Research Institute

T-boom

A sprayer boom that is shaped like the letter ‘T’

TCP

Technical Cooperation Programme of FAO

TDN

Total Digestible Nutrients (as percent of DM, or as weight of nutrients)

TLRI

Tibet Livestock Research Institute/Tibet Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences

T_max

Maximum temperature

T_min

Minimum temperature

TMR

Total Mixed Ration

TN

Total Nitrogen

ton, t

The ton used in this document is the metric tonne, where 1 ton = 1000kg

U, u

UDP

Undegradable Dietary protein

UK

United Kingdom = Great Britain

USA

United States of America

V, v

VFAs

Volatile Fatty Acids

vs

versus = compared to

W, w

W

Liveweight

WB

Winter Barley

WCWS

Whole-Crop Wheat Silage

WW

Winter Wheat

X, x

X, x

‘X’ as in Cross bred sheep, ‘x’ as in local cross Simmental cows

Y, y

y

year, as in kg/ha/y

Y

Yuan

Y

Yield, as in Milk Yield

Z, z

Z

Zadoks decimal growth stages

Zn

Zinc

Zo

Hybrid between cattle and yak